BASELINE STUDY ON CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF BRUNEI DARUSSALAM RIVERS A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy by HAJI MUHAMMAD MAJDI PEHIN DATO HAJI ABDUL AZIZ INSTITUTE FOR THE ENVIRONMENT Brunel University *** May 2005 DEDICATED TO MY LOVING PARENTS, BELOVED WIFE AND MY SON, MI3'AZ ABDUL AZIZ *** CONTENTS PAGE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ABSTRACT CHAPTER 1 THE IMPORTANCE OF WATER IN BRUNEI DARUSSALAM 01 1.1 INTRODUCTION 01 ................................................................................................... 1.1.1 The Importance of Rivers to Brunei Darussalam 01 1.1.2 Water Demand 02 1.1.3 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 03 1.2 SAMPLING PROTOCOL (STANDARD).................. 06 ........................................ 1.2.1 Protocols for water sample collection, transport and storage 07 1.2.2 Offshore Sampling 08 1.2.3 Bridge Sampling 09 1.2.4 pH Meters 09 1.2.5 Electrical Conductivity Meters 10 13 REFERENCES 11 ........ .............................................. CHAPTER 2 DESCRIPTION OF BRUNEI DARUSSALAM...............................................................12 2.1 INTRODUCTION 12 .................................................................................................... 2.1.1 Climate 12 2.1.2 Activities and Sourcesthat pollute the Brunei Rivers 18 2.1.3 Location and Hydrology of River Systemsin Brunei Darussalam 19 2.1.4 Lakes and Dams 26 2.1.5 Water withdrawal 26 2.1.6 Irrigation and Drainage Development 27 2.1.7 Trends in Water ResourcesManagement 27 2.2 SITUATION IN BRUNEI DARUSSALAM 29 2.2.1 Characteristicsof Brunei River 30 2.2.2 International Hydrological Programme 31 2.2.3 Existing Data 31 2.2.4 Water Level 31 2.2.5 Basins 32 2.3 MANGROVE SWAMPS OF BRUNEI DARUSSALAM AND THE TIDAL TREE 36 ........................................................................................................... 2.4 REFERENCES 38 ---".............................. "--------....... ---... ---"---------"----......... --------............. CHAPTER 3 ANALYSIS OF BRUNEI WATERS 40 3.1 INTRODUCTION--------------"---- 40 ---------..........-"-------................. ----.............. ---"--------"--- 3.1.1 pH and Conductivity Analysis 40 3.1.2 Anions, Cations and Heavy Metals Analysis 41 3.2 SAMPLING SITES AND METHODS 59 .................................................................. 3.3 ANALYTICAL METHODS----------------------------------------------------------------------------------73 3.3.1 ExperimentalMethods for Anions 73 3.3.2 Experimental Methods for Monovalent Cations Analysis 73 3.3.3 Experimental Methods for Divalent Cations Analysis 74 3.3.4 Experimental Methods for Heavy Metals Analysis 74 3.4 ANALYTICAL RESULTS 74 .............................................. 3.4.1 Analytical Results for pH and Conductivity Analysis 74 3.4.2 Analytical Results for Anions Analysis 79 3.4.3 Analytical Results for Monovalent Cations Analysis 85 3.4.4 Analytical Results for Heavy Metals Analysis 99 3.5 CONCLUSION 98 3.6 REFERENCES 101 ............................... CHAPTER 4 PHOTOCHEMICAL DEGRADATION OF BENZENE AND TOLUENE, ETHYLENEDIAMINETETRA-ACETIC ACID ANDHEXADECYLTRIMETHYL-AMMONIUM BROMIDE 104 4.1 INTRODUCTION_________ 104 4.1.1 Organic pollution in Asia 106 4.2 BENZENE (C6H6) 108 ........................................................................... 4.2.1 Environmental transport, distribution and transformation 109 4.2.2 Kinetics and metabolism 110 4.2.3 Genotoxicity and carcinogenicity 110 4.2.4 Reproductivetoxicity, embryotoxicityand teratogenicity 111 4.2.5 Effectson humans 111 4.2.6 Effects on laboratory mammals and in vitro test systems 111 4.3 TOLUENE (C6H5CH3) 112 .............................................."------------------_... -------- -.--... _..... 4.3.1 Absorption, distribution and metabolism 113 4.3.2 Production, uses ans sourcesof exposure 114 4.3.3 Effects on experimental animals 115 4.3.4 Effects on human beings 116 4.3.5 Carcinogenicity 116 4.3.6 Teratogenicity and Embryotoxicity 117 4.3.7 Reproductive Toxicity 118 4.3.8 Mutagenicity 118 4.4 ETHYLENEDIAMINETETRAACETIC ACID (EDTA) 119 ............................... 120 4.4.1 EDTA -A Complexing Agent 4.4.2 Toxicity of EDTA 120 4.4.3 Uses of EDTA 121 4.5 DETERGENTS / SURFACTANTS 121 4.5.1 Hexadecyltrimethyl-ammonium bromide (C19H42NBr) 123 4.5.2 PotentialHealth Effects 123 4.6 DESIGN AND OPERATION OF THE PHOTOLYTIC CELL SYSTEM 124 "---------------------------" -- ...... - ---..._... --- --------------....... -----------........ ---.......... .. 4.7 AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT 129 "............ ... 4.7.1 Experimental 129 4.7.2 Degradation of Benzene,Toluene, ethylenediaminetetra-aceticacid (EDTA) and hexadecyltrimethyl-ammonium bromide (C19H42NBr) in Photolytic Cell with and without Catalysts 129 4.7.3 HPLC operating conditions 131 4.7.4 UV spectrometric conditions 131 4.7.5 IR spectrometric Conditions 131 4.8 RESULTS FOR BENZENE AND TOLUENE ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, -"132 4.8 DISCUSSION 141 .......... ...."-"--- --..... -------...... ----------- -------............. --- 4.8.1 Photolytic degradation of benzeneand toluene 144 4.8.2 Effect of H202 on the degradationof benzene 144 4.8.3 Effect of Ti02 on the degradationof benzene 144 4.8.4 Effect of H202 on the degradationof toluene 145 4.8.5 Effect of Ti02 on the degradation of toluene 145 4.9 RESULTS FOR ETHYLENEDIAMINETETRA-ACETIC ACID (EDTA) AND HEXADECYLTRIMETHYL-AMMONIUM BROMIDE (Ci9H42NBr) 145 --------"-------"............. "----. --. ------.. --............................. --.. ----... ---........ -------" 4.10 DISCUSSIONS 146 --""----.......-"-- ---------------------------------------------"---....----------"---.............. 4.10.1 Photolytic degradation of Ethylenediaminetetra-aceticacid (EDTA) And Hexadecyltrimethyl-ammonium bromide (C19H42NBr) 146 4.10.2 Effect of UV source irradiation sources 146 4.10.3 Effect of H202 on the degradation of EDTA 147 4.10.4 Effect of Ti02 on the degradation of EDTA 147 4.10.5 Effect of H202 on the degradation of C19H42NBr 147 4.10.6 Effect of Ti02 on the degradation of C19H42NBr 148 4.10.7 Kinetics of Degradation of Ethylenediaminetetra-aceticacid (EDTA) andHexadecyltrimethyl-ammonium bromide (C19H42NBr) 148 4.11 CONCLUSION 162 ....................................................................................................... 4.12 REFERENCES, 163 .................................................................................................._.... CHAPTER 5 BRUNEI'S ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT AND ITS CONTRIBUTION TO THE CLEANLINESS OF BRUNEI RIVERS,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 166 , 5.1 INTRODUCTION 166 5.1.1 International Organisation for Standardisationapplication- ISO 14001 168 5.1.2 ISO 14001 - Environmental Management System model 169 5.2 WATER MANAGEMENT IN BRUNEI 171 5.2.1 Functions 171 5.2.2 The Drainage Section 171 5.2.3 The SewerageSection 173 5.2.4 The Project Section 173 5.3 WASTE MANAGEMENT 174 .................................................................................... 5.3.1 Sustainableresource consumption and management 176 5.3.2 Systemsfor resource recovery 177 5.3.3 Residual wastesmanagement 178 5.3.4 Market development and intervention 179 5.3.5 Social dimension 179 5.3.6 Environment and health (risk managementand impact assessment) 180 5.3.7 Economics 181 5.3.8 Decision support tools 182 5.4 WASTE POLICY IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES. 184 .................................... 5.41 Methods and Strategies 184 5.4.2 Less Waste 184 5.4.3 More Recycling 185 5.4.4 Better final treatment and reduced illegal managementof waste 186 5.4.5 Managementof special waste 186 5.4.6 Changesin work forms and distribution of responsibility 187 5.4.7 Generalmeasures and methods 187 5.5 WASTE MANAGEMENT IN BRUNEI DARUSSALAM...................... 187 ......... 5.5.1 Brunei's Administration 193 5.5.2 MS W Management-A ComparativeStudy 197 5.3.3 Volume Analysis of the Total MSW -A Comparative Study 198 5.6 ACHIEVEMENTS 201 ---------------------------------------"----------....--"-"----------.... ------ ------- -------- 5.6.1 ISO 14001accreditation 202 5.6.2 Water Village vacuum sewerage 202 5.6.3 Location of Landfills 205 5.6.4 Transportationof MSW 206 5.6.5 New approachto rubbish trap 206 5.7 PROBLEMS AND CHALLENGES 209 ................................................................... 5.8 CONCLUSION 13 ...................................................................................................... 5.9 REFERENCES. 217 ...................................................................................................... CHAPTER 1 maps Map 1.1 Population Density 02 ........................ "..................................... CHAPTER 2 Mais 13 Map 2.1 Location Map Brunei Darussalam of ........................................ .................... 13 Map 2.2 Geology. .......................................................................................................... 15 Map 2.3 Climate.. .................... ...................................................................................... 15 Map 2.4 Vegetation ...................................................................................................... Brunei, Belait, Tutong Temburong Districts 25 Map 2.5 and ........................................ 28 Map 2.6 Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing ........................................... .................... 34 Map 2.7.1 Map of Tutong River ..................................................................................... 34 Map 2.7.2 Map of Belait River .....................................................................................