POLYPHONIC CONVERSATIONS BETWEEN NOVEL AND FILM: HEART OF DARKNESS AND APOCALYPSE NOW, NA DIE GELIEFDE LAND AND PROMISED LAND Toinette Badenhorst-Roux Hons. B.A. Dissertation submitted for the degree Master of Arts in Linguistics and Literary Theory at the North-West University Supervisor: Prof. H.M. Viljoen Co-supervisor: Prof. A.M. de Lange 2006 Potchefstroom Campus Abstract This dissertation attempts a Bakhtinian analysis of the polyphonic dialogue between Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness, Francis Ford Coppola's Apocalypse Now, Karel Schoeman's Na die Geliefde Land and Jason Xenopoulos' Promised Land. Specific Bakthinian concepts are employed to determine whether the films are "apt" adaptations of the literary texts; how the stylistically hybrid texts engage in conversation with different movements, genres and trends; how the polyphonic conversations between different texts and discourses, such as literature and film, or colonialism and postcolonialism, can provide insight into the variety of discourses, textual and ideological, of a postcolonial, post-apartheid South Africa; and how identity crises experienced by key characters can be explained using the notions of hybridity, "The Marginal Man" and liminality. All four texts have key characters that experience identity crises that spring from cultural hybridity; their cultural hybridity has the potential to either render them marginally stagnant or lead them to liminally active participation within their imagined communities. This dissertation argues that even though there are major differences between the films and the literary texts they are based upon, they are relevant to a specific target audience and therefore enrich the ur-texts. Salient characteristics of realism, symbolism, impressionism, modernism, postmodernism, postcolonialism and the apocalyptic dialogise one another within the four texts, thereby liberating the texts from one authorial reading. The dialogue between the discourses of literature and film supplement an understanding of the dialogue between war, imperialism, colonialism, postcolonialism and the Will to Power. Keywords: Mikhail Bakhtin, dialogics, dialogism, polyphony, polyphonic, hybrid, hybridity, identity, marginal, Joseph Conrad, Heart of Darkness, Francis Ford Coppola, Apocalypse Now, Apocalypse Now Redux, Karel Schoeman, Na die Geliefde Land, Jason Xenopoulos, Promised Land. Opsomming Die doelstelling van hierdie verhandeling is om 'n Bakhtiniaanse analise te maak van die polifoniese dialoog tussen Joseph Conrad se Heart of Darkness, Francis Ford Coppola se Apocalypse Now, Karel Schoeman se Na die Geliefde Land en Jason Xenopoulos se Promised Land. Spesifieke Bakhtiniaanse konsepte word gebruik as instrurnentasie om vas te stel of die films "geskikte" verwerkings is van die literkre tekste; hoe die stilisties hibriede tekste in gesprek tree met veskeie strominge, genres en neigings; hoe die polifoniese gesprekke tussen die verskillende tekste en diskoerse, soos literatuur en film, of kolonialisme en postkolonialisme, tot nut kan wees vir 'n postkoloniale, post-apartheid Suid-Afrika; en hoe sleutelkarakters, wat identiteitskrisisse ervaar, in gesprek tree met hibriditeit, "Die Marginale Man" en liminaliteit. Al vier tekste het sleutelkarakters wat identiteitskrisisse ervaar wat spruit uit kulturele hibriditeit; hul kulturele hibriditeit het die potensiaal om te lei na of marginale stagnasie of liminale deelname binne hul verbeelde gemeenskappe. Alhoewel daar belangrike verskille is tussen die films en die literbre tekste waarop hulle gebaseer is, argumenteer hierdie verhandeling dat die verwerkings relevant is vir 'n spesifieke teikengehoor en dus die oer-tekste verryk. Daar is bevind dat pertinente kenmerke van realisme, simbolisme, impressionisme, modernisme, postmodernisme, postkolonialisme en die apokaliptiese, mekaar binne die vier tekste dialogiseer, en dus die tekste bevy van een outoritkre interpretasie. Die dialoog tussen die diskoerse van literatuur en film vul mekaar aan ten einde begrip te kweek vir die dialoog tussen oorlog, imperialisme, kolonialisme, postkolonialisrne en die Wil tot Mag. Sleutelterme: Mikhail Bakhtin, dialogisme, polifonie, hibried, hibriditeit, identiteit, marginaliteit, Joseph Conrad, Heart of Darkness, Francis Ford Coppola, Apocalypse Now, Apocalypse Now Redux, Karel Schoeman, Na die Geliefde Land, Jason Xenopoulos, Promised Land. Acknowledgments I should like to thank the National Research Foundation (NRF) for financial assistance that made this dissertation possible. This material is based upon work supported by the NRF under Grant Number GUN 2054185. The opinions and conclusions of this dissertation are those of the author and should not be ascribed to either the NRF or the North-West University. Special thanks to my supervisor, Prof. Hein Viljoen, for your patience and guidance. Your widely-read knowledge is admirable. Thank you to my co-supervisor and mentor, Prof. Attie de Lange. You are a true gentleman for you always manage to stay friendly and professional, even through your own trials and tribulations. The best to you and your family. Sincere thanks to my husband and soulmate, Johan Badenhorst, for supporting me financially so that I could finish my studies, and supporting me emotionally through trying times. You are my best friend. Thank you to my parents, Christo and Zema Roux, who financially supported my career as a student for so many years. To my sister, Zema, and my brother, Francois, thanks for providing me with a social life that counterbalanced my academic life. You are more than family, you are my friends. And last but not least, thanks to my sister-in-law Carin, who also contributed to my social life. Having studied English yourself, you were a sounding board for all my complaints, problems and fears. And thanks for taking the time to proofread my dissertation. Benji, may you rest in peace my loyal one. iii Table of Contents Abstract .............................................................................................................................i Opsomming ......................... ...........................................................................................ii Acknowledgments ......................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents ............................................................................................................iv 1. CHAPTER 1 .ORIENTATION AND PROBLEM STATEMENT .................1 1. 1. Orientation ............................................................................................................2 1.2. Problem statement ................................................................................................4 1.3. Aims ......................................................................................................................5 1.3 .l.General aims ................................................................................................ 5 1.3.2. Specific aims ............................................................................................... 5 1.4. Thesis statement ..................................................................................................6 1.5. Method of study ..................................................................................................7 2 . CHAPTER 2 -THEORETICAL OVERVIEW OF HYBRIDITY. "THE MARGINAL MAN. LIMINALITY. IDENTITY AND BAKHTlNlAN THOUGHT9 2.1. Introduction......................................................................................................... 10 2.2. Hybridity. "The Marginal Man" and liminality ...................................................... 10 . 2.2.1. Hybr~d~ty....................................................................................................... 11 2.2.2. Marginality and liminality ............................................................................ 14 2.2.3. Identity.......................................................................................................... 20 2.2.4. Conrad and Schoeman as marginal and liminal figures ........................... ..22 2.3. Bakhtinian thought ..............................................................................................27 2.3.1 . Dialogics....................................................................................................... 27 2.3.2. Carnival ........................................................................................................33 2.4. Literature and film ..................................... ... .......................................................37 2.4.1 . The emergence of visual arts .......................................................................37 2.4.2. Novel and film as hybrid mediums .............................................................42 2.4.3. Prejudices and hostilities against filmic adaptations of literature ..................44 2.4.4. Redefining what 'Tidelity" means in filmic adaptations of literature ...............45 2.4.5. Bakhtinian overtones in filmic adaptations of literature ............................... 46 2.4.6. How Apocalypse Now and Promised Land were received by the general public and literary or film scholars ...........................................................................48 2.5. Conclusion ..........................................................................................................50 3. CHAPTER 3 -THEORETICAL OVERVIEW OF MOVEMENTS WITHIN HYBRID