Korea Journal, vol. 56, no. 1 (spring 2016): 116-139. 116 © Korean NationalKOREA Commission JOURNAL for UNESCO, / SPRING 2016 The Potato Revolution in the DPRK: A Novel Type of Political Campaign* Tatiana GABROUSSENKO Abstract At first glance, the “potato revolution” initiated personally by Kim Jong Il in 1998 fol- lowed the usual DPRK propaganda campaign strategy in moments of crisis. However, a closer look reveals that the potato revolution represented a novel type of political campaign. The unique combination of complex social goals, which were behind the potato revolution, and the novel methods by which this revolution was promoted, reflect the exceptional changes experienced by the DPRK from the 1990s. These changes amounted to the introduction of market logic and rival viewpoints into North Korean society, which had obstinately striven to protect the purity of its official ideolo- gy. The potato revolution became a novel type of political campaign, aimed at both producer and consumer; in addition to the familiar methods of Juche propaganda, it employed some popular Western marketing techniques. This paper aims to investigate the potato promotion campaign as a comprehensive cultural phenomenon manifested in a wide range of North Korean cultural practices. Keywords: North Korean mass culture, North Korean literature and the arts, com- munist propaganda, Arduous March, potato revolution, Kim Jong Il, Kim Il Sung * This research was supported by a 2011 Korean Studies Grant. Tatiana Gabroussenko is Assistant Professor in North Korean Studies, Faculty of Korean Studies, Korea University. E-mail: [email protected]. The Potato Revolution in the DPRK 117 Introduction In the 1990s, the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK) experi- enced a chain of destabilizing events, including the fall of the Eastern Bloc, withdrawal of Soviet economic aid, collapse of the centrally planned econo- my and harsh climatic conditions. The reaction of North Korean policy- makers to these events was remarkable. North Korean leadership recognized economic problems yet took no responsibility for them. The blame for the disaster was instead redirected to external factors, such as the untimely death of Kim Il Sung, American economic sanctions, and the caprices of nature. In North Korean political jargon, the famine of the mid to late 1990s has acquired the definition of gonan-ui haenggun, or the Arduous March, an allusion to a mythologized historical event of the same name: the march of Kim Il Sung’s guerrilla troops in Manchuria during 1938–1939. Gonan-ui haenggun in the 1990s victimized Koreans and vilified Americans, presenting them as the culprits responsible for the sufferings of North Korean people. This approach, which North Korean ideologists translated in a number of manuals, such as Yun Hyon-chol’s “From the Arduous March to the March to Paradise” (Yun 2002), allowed the DPRK’s regime to receive access to international food aid, and at the same time, to save face. Since gonan-ui haenggun did not imply any blame on the part of the DPRK government, North Korean measures to fight the crisis implied no fundamental change of economic and political course. The regime’s endeavors were limited to an introduction of available technical novelties, the search for and cultivation of new non-arable lands, and also the attempt to alter the traditional patterns of Korean food in favor of less demanding farming products. Simultaneously, the regime intensified ideological work in order to pre- serve the loyalty of its citizens. This task was immensely important. On the one hand, the essentially atheist Juche ideology was used to support the legitimacy of the North Korean leadership through earthly, materialist sym- bols. On the other hand, starving citizens reacted to the crisis of the late 1990s in a politically dangerous way by engaging in illegal market activities like border crossing and smuggling in goods from the outside world. State-sponsored culture and the arts in the DPRK were mobilized to 118 KOREA JOURNAL / SPRING 2016 renovate the official discourse of socialist prosperity and political loyalty. The embodiment of the essence of such policies became the gamja (nongsa) hyeongmyeong—“potato (growing) revolution.” The potato revolution has attracted the attention of some distinguished scholars. Most of their scholarship focuses on the economic, political (Noland 2000, Choe 2002, Kwon 1999), or sociological aspects of this revo- lution. The work of Kim Yang-hui and Jeon Yeong-seon are interesting examples of the latter. Kim (2011a) investigates manifestations of new dietary policy seen through North Korean films, and touches upon the issue of revolution as part of this policy. Jeon (2011) discusses how images of the potato have become more prominent in the context of the depiction of the household economy in North Korean films. Another study by Kim (2011b) focuses on North Korean food politics as manifested in the North Korean women’s journal Joseon nyeoseong, and contains information about the changing role of the potato in North Korean society. However, thus far none of these scholars has considered the potato revolution as a propaganda/ advertising campaign through an investigation of a wide range of North Korean cultural practices. The present paper aims to fill this gap. The scholarly significance of such an investigation is related to a unique combination of complex social goals behind the potato revolution, and the novel methods by which the revolution was promoted. These goals and methods reflect the exceptional changes the DPRK experienced from the late 1990s; these changes amounted to the introduction of market logic into North Korean society, which had obstinately striven to protect the purity of its official ideology. The potato revolution became a novel type of political campaign aimed at both producer and consumer; in addition to the familiar methods of Juche propaganda, it employed some popular techniques of Western marketing with its “sophisticated manipulation of images and sym- bols” (Jowett and O’Donnell 2012, 152). The present paper aims to investigate the goals, methods, and develop- ment of the DPRK’s potato promotion campaign from the 1990s to the pres- ent through an analysis of a range of its mobilizing tools, such as North Kore- an media sources, officially endorsed literary works, visual arts, and feature films, and to offer preliminary conclusions as to the results of this campaign. The Potato Revolution in the DPRK 119 Historical Background The official start of the gamja (nongsa) hyeongmyeong is marked by Kim Jong Il’s visit to Taehongdan County in the country’s Ryanggang Province in October 1998, and his call to “spread the potato-growing industry to the whole country” through the efforts of large numbers of resettled, newly demobilized soldiers (Jo 2003, 126–127). Kim Jong Il emphasized in particular that the coming potato revolution was intended as a radical change of attitude in regards to the potato to the degree that this plant was supposed to become the “king of the fields” and the DPRK the “potato kingdom of Asia” (Kim Jong Il 2000, 428–430). The potato revolution is a rare example of a North Korean political campaign whose aims have been partially explained only once by its mas- termind, the Dear Leader Kim Jong Il. While visiting Russia in 2001, Kim Jong Il, in his conversation with the representative of Russian President Putin in the Far Eastern region, Kostantin Pulikovskii, confessed as follows: “You Russians have a good tradition of eating potatoes. I am also trying to introduce the potato in Korea but with little success so far. Indeed, it would be much more convenient and economical to use potatoes for feed- ing military units which are dispersed in the northern Ryanggang Province. However, despite a good potato harvest, our military requires rice, which costs a lot to transport to this region. Look at the Germans. They have grown used to the potato and it’s become their staple food. Why can’t we do this in North Korea?” (Pulikovskii 2001). There are reasons to suggest that the concerns Kim Jong Il expressed during his informal talk with the Russians were justifiable. Indeed, Koreans have traditionally perceived potatoes as a low-quality culinary product, which served as a last resort during times of food shortages. Ample evi- dence of the status of the potato in the Korean mentality can be found in the memoirs of Kim Il Sung, Segi-wa deobureo (With the Century), particu- larly its coverage of his years in a guerrilla camp in Manchuria. In this lengthy text, published in 1992, the potato serves as an unmistakable indi- cation of a region’s poverty. When emphasizing the scarcity of people in Naedongsan, for example, Kim Il Sung mentions that the main food in this 120 KOREA JOURNAL / SPRING 2016 area used to be potato porridge with beans that made people pass gas (I. Kim 1992, 1:117). Recollecting Korean migrants in Manchuria, Kim Il Sung repeatedly notes that these poor people “survived on potatoes” (I. Kim 1992, 5:60). An even more typical example is a passage involving Kim Il Sung’s wife Kim Jong Suk, who was a cook in the camp. Referring to Kim Jong Suk’s care for her comrades, Kim Il Sung recollects: “Once there was not a grain in the camp and we had to eat only potatoes. Everybody knows that if a person eats only potatoes for a few meals in a row he will become sick and lose his appetite. Kim Jong Suk was very upset by the fact that she had to feed her comrades exclusively potatoes. She was filled with thoughts about how to increase the appetite of the guerillas. She grated potatoes and made pan- cakes from them, or stuffed potato buns with wild grasses.