This full text version, available on TeesRep, is the final version of this PhD Thesis: Starkie, A. (2012) Body modifications as a tool to aid human identification. Unpublished PhD thesis. Teesside University. This document was downloaded from http://tees.openrepository.com/tees/handle/10149/237392 All items in TeesRep are protected by copyright, with all rights reserved, unless otherwise indicated. TeesRep: Teesside University's Research Repository http://tees.openrepository.com/tees/ Body modifications as a tool to aid human identification Alexandra Starkie This thesis is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the qualification awarded by Teesside University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy April 2011 Abstract Forensic human identification draws upon a plethora of information from various investigatory techniques. Body modifications are identifiable characteristics that have received mention in the field of human identification, but which have not been explicitly investigated. This research was conducted in order to highlight the potential body modifications have to aid the identification process, and to demonstrate the information that can be retrieved from common modifications such as tattoos and piercings. In order to demonstrate the pertinence of body modifications to the field of forensic human identification a survey was distributed nationally (UK) to determine the incidence of body modification practices. These surveys were novel in their application as they did not target any sub-group of the population. 880 viable responses were collected both digitally and on paper. Results included; 89% of female respondents displaying bi-lateral earlobe piercing, 38% of female respondents reporting at least one piercing at a location other than their earlobes, and 28% reported at least one tattoo. 17% of male respondents also reported at least one piercing and 24% at least one tattoo. Inferences can be made that every fourth or fifth male and every third or fourth female will have at least one modification requiring recording. 69 modified respondents took part in a second survey which detailed their experiences of becoming modified, enabling an insight into the considerations and motivations the process of acquiring a piercing, tattoo or other modification involves. A 28 month taphonomical study of both surface and buried deposits was undertaken in order to investigate the location of trans-dermal artefacts such as earrings in relation to the skeletal elements and their original location after decomposition occurred. Artefacts moved to a depth of at least 6cm below the confirmed base of the grave, and to a distance of at least 120cm from the original location. i Jewellery and tattoo inks are internationally produced and traded. Tattoo inks are manufactured without specific guidelines ascertaining or requiring disclosure of their ingredients. 88 tattoo inks were investigated, completing the most extensive investigation of tattoo inks to date. The successful implementation of investigatory techniques such as Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), UV- spectroscopy and Microspectrophotometry (MSP) along with statistical analysis using Principal Component Analysis (PCA) enabled the successful discrimination between manufacturing companies. It highlighted the inconsistency in production of inks from batch to batch by each manufacturer, and the ink’s own instability over periods of storage. This significantly compromises the ability to determine conclusively an ink’s manufacturer from its chemical composition, though inferences of manufacturer can be made after ratio and PCA analysis are conducted. Body modifications are therefore considered significant possible aids to the identification process. Key words: Body modifications, human identification, forensic anthropology, forensic archaeology, tattoos, piercings. ii Declaration I declare that all work submitted here is the work of the author alone and any collaborations are appropriately noted. ___________________________________________ Alexandra Starkie iii Acknowledgements I would like to express my sincerest thanks to my three supervisors; Dr. Tim Thompson, Dr. Tracy Shildrick and Dr. Meez Islam. Their expertise and guidance throughout the period of research has been invaluable. The relationships we have built over the course of the research have proven vital to its completion. Thank you. The students who expressed such interest and helped facilitate experiments must also be thanked for their enthusiasm and involvement; Kimberley Purdy, Justine Doirisse, Nathalee Tchendo and Marie Gauthier. Thanks also to the technicians for their expertise and assistance with machinery and sourcing of materials. I would also like to extend my gratitude to Paul Pye who succeeded in explaining the intricacies of statistical analysis to me. His patience is greatly appreciated. And personal thanks to my family and friends for continued support (and numerous cups of tea) throughout the processes of research and writing; these past three years seem to have been especially trying for us all at various times and I hope I can repay the favours you have all awarded me. Of most significance to this research, however, is the Leverhulme Trust and their full-funding of the project (F/00 762/C). It is no exaggeration to say that without them, the research would not have been possible. iv Contents Abstract and key words.................................................................................................i Declaration..................................................................................................................iii Acknowledgements.....................................................................................................iv List of figures............................................................................................................viii List of tables...............................................................................................................xii Chapter 1 1. Body modifications as a tool to aid human identification........................................1 1.1. Identification.............................................................................................2 1.1.1. Methods of identification...........................................................6 1.2. Forensic anthropology and forensic archaeology......................................7 1.3. Body modifications.................................................................................12 1.4. Forensic case studies...............................................................................21 1.5. Introduction to research...........................................................................23 Chapter 2 2. History and global incidence of body modification practices................................26 2.1. China and Japan......................................................................................27 2.2. India and the subcontinent.......................................................................32 2.3. Southeast Asia.........................................................................................33 2.4. South Pacific............................................................................................34 2.5. South America.........................................................................................38 2.6. Africa.......................................................................................................40 2.7. 19th century to present day Western attitudes..........................................43 2.8. Modern Western attitudes to body modifications...................................46 2.9. Conclusion...............................................................................................55 v Chapter 3 3. Survey of body modifications................................................................................57 3.1. Introduction.............................................................................................57 3.2. Previously conducted surveys relating to body modifications................58 3.3. Methods of implementation of the survey as part of this research..........60 3.4. Pilot study results....................................................................................61 3.5. National survey 2008-2009.....................................................................65 3.6. Results.....................................................................................................65 3.7. Discussion...............................................................................................71 3.7.1. Piercings...................................................................................73 3.7.2. Tattoos......................................................................................75 3.8. Health complications...............................................................................78 3.9. Conclusion...............................................................................................82 Chapter 4 4. Post-decomposition location of trans-dermal artefacts..........................................85 4.1. Introduction............................................................................................85 4.2. Taphonomy.............................................................................................88 4.3. Artefacts and evidence............................................................................90 4.4. Crime scene recovery