Image, Words, Magic: A Case Study of the Influence of Images on the Use of Amulets from Egypt and Mesopotamia Annerié Fritz Thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences at the University of Stellenbosch Department of Ancient Studies Supervisor: Professor Izak Cornelius March 2021 Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Declaration By submitting this thesis electronically, I declare that the entirety of the work contained therein is my own, original work, that I am the sole author thereof (save to the extent explicitly otherwise stated), that reproduction and publication thereof by Stellenbosch University will not infringe any third party rights and that I have not previously in its entirety or in part submitted it for obtaining any qualification. March 2021 Copyright © 2021 Stellenbosch University All rights reserved i Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Abstract: This thesis intends to examine to what degree the use of images on certain objects may have influenced the way in which such artefacts had been used. To this end this thesis utilizes ancient amulets from both Egypt and Mesopotamia as case studies. The iconographic method as adapted by Bonfiglio (2016) is applied throughout. This method allows for a closer examination not only of the amulets, but of the image-function relationship and the visual awareness behind the use of images as well. The corpus of this thesis consists of eight amulets of varying types, functions and origin, with supporting examples provided as additional figures in the body of the text. This allows for the focus of the study to remain with images and their role with regards to the use of these objects rather than the objects themselves. The study concludes that while the interpretation of the image as the determinative factor in the use of the amulet may be valid, the eventual ambiguity as to the validity of this interpretation as well as its opposite, in equal measure, may require further study in order to reach a definitive conclusion. ii Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Opsomming: Die doel van hierdie tesis is om ondersoek in te stel na die mate van invloed wat die beeldmateriaal moontlik op die gebruik van sekere artefakte kan hê. In hierdie tesis word amulette van Egipte en Mesopotamië as gevallestudies gebruik. Die ikonografiese metode soos aangepas deur Bonfiglio (2016) word in die studie as metode gebruik. Hierdie metode laat ‘n meer indiepte ondersoek van die objekte toe, die verhouding tussen die beeld en die funksie van die amulette, sowel as die vlak van doelbewuste gebruik van die beeld. Die korpus van die studie bestaan uit agt amulette van verskeie tipes, funksies en oorsprong. Ondersteunende voorbeelde word afsonderlik in die teks verskaf. Dit verseker dat die fokus van die studie by die beeld bly en die invloed op die gebruik van die amulette eerder as die amulette self. Die gevolgtrekking van die studie bespreek die grondigheid van die interpretasie dat die beeld bepaal hoe die artefakte gebruik is, maar lig uit dat die teenoorgestelde interpretasie ook moontlik is en dat daar meer ondersoek ingestel moet word om tot ‘n meer beslisde gevolgtrekking te kom. iii Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Acknowledgements I would briefly like to acknowledge and give thanks for the contribution of the following individuals and institution, without whom this thesis would not have reached its conclusion: To my supervisor Professor Izak Cornelius, for his guidance, support and ample patience. To Dr. R.M. van Dijk-Coombes, for her aid in uncertain times, patient guidance and kind assurances. To the Department of Ancient Studies, for this opportunity, and the University of Stellenbosch for the bursaries awareded to me. To Ms. Annelie Strauss, for her tips on editing. To my mother; A patient listener whose ability to reason without a foundation of relevant knowledge has saved my sanity time and again. iv Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Contents Declaration ............................................................................................................................. i Abstract:.................................................................................................................................ii Opsomming: ......................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgements ...............................................................................................................iv List of Illustrations ............................................................................................................... viii List of Tables ...................................................................................................................... xiii Maps ................................................................................................................................. xiv PART I: Context and Theory ................................................................................................. 1 1. Introduction: Background and Historical Context ........................................................ 1 1.1. Research Problem and Definitions ...................................................................... 4 1.1.1. Definitions ........................................................................................................ 4 1.1.2. Research Problem, Thesis Aim & Hypothesis .................................................. 9 1.1.3. Why Egypt and Mesopotamia? ...................................................................... 11 1.2. Methodology ...................................................................................................... 14 1.2.1. Iconography and Visual Theory: Selecting a Methodological Approach ......... 14 1.2.2. Research Design and Outline ........................................................................ 18 1.2.3. Limiting the Corpus ........................................................................................ 18 1.2.4. Reading the Catalogue .................................................................................. 19 1.2.5. Sources ......................................................................................................... 21 2. The Image and the Mind ........................................................................................... 22 2.1. The Image ......................................................................................................... 23 2.2. The Mind ........................................................................................................... 25 2.3. The Theory ........................................................................................................ 27 2.4. The Connection ................................................................................................. 28 PART II: Case Studies ........................................................................................................ 30 3. Invoking Spirits ......................................................................................................... 30 3.1. Egyptian Felines ................................................................................................ 31 3.1.1. Amulet Description: ........................................................................................ 31 3.1.2. Cultural Significance: ..................................................................................... 31 3.1.3. Material Symbolism:....................................................................................... 33 3.1.4. Intrinsic Meaning: ........................................................................................... 35 v Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za 3.2. Egyptian Canines .............................................................................................. 36 3.2.1. Amulet Description: ........................................................................................ 36 3.2.2. Cultural Significance: ..................................................................................... 37 3.2.3. Material Symbolism:....................................................................................... 39 3.2.4. Intrinsic Meaning: ........................................................................................... 40 3.3. The Viewer: ....................................................................................................... 41 3.4. Mesopotamian Felines ...................................................................................... 44 3.4.1. Amulet Description: ........................................................................................ 44 3.4.2. Cultural Significance: ..................................................................................... 45 3.4.3. Material Symbolism:....................................................................................... 47 3.4.4. Intrinsic Meaning: ........................................................................................... 49 3.5. Mesopotamian Canines ..................................................................................... 50 3.5.1. Amulet Description: ........................................................................................ 50 3.5.2. Cultural Significance: ....................................................................................