General Introduction of Indian Philosophy[ Duration -2 classes(approx)] The etymological meaning of the word Philosophy is ‘Love of Learning’ Philosophy Indian Philosophy Western Philosophy Indian philosophy denotes the philosophical speculations of all Indian thinkers, ancient or modern, Hindus or non-Hindus, theists or atheists. The Schools of Indian philosophy According to a traditional principle of classification most likely adopted by orthodox Hindu thinkers, the schools or systems of Indian philosophy are divided into two broad classes, namely, orthodox (āstike) and heterodox (nāstika). The Schools of Indian Philosophy Schools rejecting vedic authority Schools rejecting vedic authority (Heterodox or Nastika e.g. Carvaka, Bauddha, Jaina) (Orthodox or Astika) Schools directly based on Vedic texts Schools based on independent grounds(e.g. Sankhya, yoga, Nyaya, Vaisesika) Schools emphasizing the ritualistic aspect of the Vedas (Viz.Mimansa) Schools emphasizing the speculative aspect of the Vedas (Viz. Vedenta) The Nyaya Theory of Knowledge[ Duration -2 classes(approx)] The Nyaya theory of reality is based on the Nyaya theory of knowledge. According to this, there are four distinct and separate sources of true knowledge. These are – i. Preception or Pratyaksa ii. Anumana or Inference iii. Upamana or Comparison iv. Sabda or Testimony Definition of perception: Indriyarthasannikarsotpannam jnanam avyapadeshyam avyabhichari vyavasayatmakar pratyaksam. ---- Nyaya Sutra The definition of perception as a cognition due to the stimulation of our sense organs by the perceived object is generally accepted by us. Classification of Perception: There are different ways of classifying perception first we have the distinction between laukika or ordinary and alaukika or extra ordinary perceptions. This distinction depends on the way in which the senses come in contact with their object. According to another classification, ordinary perception is of two kinds, namely nirvikalpaka or the indeterminate and savikalpaka or the determinate. Here the principle of classification is the more or less developed character of perceptual knowledge. Reference: Indian Philosophy- J.N. Sinha Inference: [ Duration -3 classes(approx)] The secons kind of knowledge is anumana or inference. It is defined as that cognition which presupposes some other cognition. It is mediate and indirect and arises through a mark, the middleterm (linga or hetu) which is invariably connected with the ‘majorterm’ (Sadhya). It is knowledge (mana) which arises after (anu) other knowledge. Invariable concomitance(vyapti) is the nerve of inference. The presence of the middle term in the minor term is called paksadharmata. The invariable association of the middle term with the major term is called vyapti. Vyapti Samavyapti Asamavyapti A vyapti between terms of unequal extension, such as smoke and fire is called asamavyapti A vyapti between two terms of equal extension is called samavyapti. Different methods of ascertaining vyapti The Nyaya method of induction or generaliasation may be analysed into the following Steps:- i) Anvaya ii) Vyatireka iii) Vyabhicaragraha iv) Upadhinirasa v) Tarka vi) Samanyalaksana perception [Reference: C.D. Sharma] .