Drawing on the Past, Regenerating the Present: A Comparison of the Works of Ayi Kwei Armah and Nicolás Guillén By NOVIETO, SETOR DONNÉ A thesis submitted to the Victoria University of Wellington in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Victoria University of Wellington 2020 Yet out of the decay and dung there is always a new flowering. Perhaps it helps to know that. Perhaps it clears the suffering brain. -Ayi Kwei Armah La inyección africana en esta tierra es tan profunda, y se cruzan y entrecruzan en nuestra bien regada hidrografía social tantas corrientes capilares, que sería trabajo de miniaturista desenredar el jeroglífico. -Nicolás Guillén. This thesis was conducted under the supervision of Dr Nicola Gilmour and Emeritus Professor Mark Williams Abstract Novelist Ayi Kwei Armah and poet Nicolás Guillén are, respectively, Ghanaian and Cuban writers who embody the efforts of mid-twentieth-century artists to depict the day-to-day socio-political conditions and struggles of societies seeking to move beyond histories of racial and economic oppression. Both engage powerfully and controversially with ongoing debates around damaging colonial histories and disappointing contemporary realities. The achievement of independence did not usher in the new, improved nations sought by way of struggle and suffering in either country. Uncompromisingly, Armah’s and Guillén’s works portray both the irredeemable parts of colonial histories and those that can be put to the benefit of the present, together with the tension that this disparity between expectation and achievement engenders. Granted the varied nature of the subject matter of the works of the two authors and the seeming lack of relation between them, this study makes use of a selection of theoretical frameworks to find common ground for analysing their work. The analysis of Nicolás Guillén’s poetry is based on concepts fundamental to Latin American social and cultural criticism, notably, the ideology of whitening or blanqueamiento, cultural mixing or mestizaje, and feminist criticism. The study of Ayi Kwei Armah’s first novel The Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born (1968) employs socio-cultural theories including traditional Ghanaian concepts such sankofa and the Akan symbol of adinkra, together with Jean Paul Sartre’s concept of the “engaged writer.” This thesis argues that, in spite of their different national and ethnic backgrounds, both writers draw on traditional aspects of African culture to provide the impetus for social and cultural regeneration in their societies. Critics have read Armah as presenting disillusioned and decadent images of Ghana and promoting limited roles for women in his work. Guillén too has been portrayed by critics as offering an objectified representation of i women in his poetry of the 1920s and 1930s and has been accused of ignoring, as a poet of meztizaje or ethnic mixture, the issues of Blacks and Blackness. This thesis contests these limiting critical positions, arguing that the writers’ representations of women, Blacks and Blackness are more positive and progressive than has been allowed. Acknowledging the burden of racist histories, the false promise of postcolonial liberation, the blatant corruption and the unrealised expectations of their times, they nevertheless allow for the possibility of regeneration in the societies they both dissect and, in part, restore. ii Acknowledgements I am deeply indebted to God Almighty for being my present help in ages past and my hope for years to come. Most importantly, I express my deepest appreciation first of all, to my family. My success would not have been possible without their deep love, unwavering support and constant prayers. To my Dad, Daniel, “you did not wait for me to finish before you left this Earth.” I am particularly grateful to my supervisor Dr Nicola Gilmour for accepting the task when I urgently needed a new supervisor. Her patience, her encouragement, her effective supervision style and her fruitful and relevant feedbacks were key in the progress, continuation and completion of this thesis. Nicola, you have been un manatial de poder, ayuda y apoyo. Akpe na wo (Thank you). I also received thought-provoking, insightful and critical comments from Emeritus Professor Mark Williams, my secondary supervisor. His insights into World Literature, especially that of the Caribbean, provided me with the tools to fine-tune the link between Armah and Guillén and for that matter, Cuba and Ghana respectively. I am particularly indebted to a great literary scholar, Dr James Meffan of the English Programme of Victoria University of Wellington for the three-months of mind-opening and capacity building experience with you. You opened your world of Narratology and Literary Theory to me and you equipped me with skills and tools for life. Thank you James. My gratitude goes to all the faculty and staff of the School of Languages and Cultures here at the Victoria University of Wellington, most especially Prof. Marco Sonzogni and Dr Catherine Churchman. Dr Richard Millington deserves a special mention as he took me as a friend and at the same time mentored me. Richard, your formal and informal visits and the iii encouragements are GOLDEN and will forever remain in my heart. I appreciate the guidance and invaluable suggestions from Dr Miguel Arnedo-Gómez and Professor Sarah Leggott. Nina, former School Administrator, Ida and the rest of the Administration team deserve a mention. I also acknowledge Dr Lizzie Towl and Erica Schouten for the valuable and unquantifiable roles that they played in ensuring that this PhD was put back on track and is completed. Thank you Lizzie and Erica, You are a GIFT to me and to all students of Victoria University. My thanks also go to the staff at the Student Finance office, especially Adrianne Otto, Paige Jarmin, Morgan Wisheart, Dan Napolitano, Nadia Henare, Sammy Young, Stephanie Hunter and William Vandenberg Gracie for the financial advice and help anytime I appear there, and to Barry Lewis and Alana Hamill of the Faculty of Graduate Research, you were an inspiration. Dr Deborah Laurs, Dr Xiaodan Gao, Kirsten Reid and Marie Paterson, all of Te Taiako (Student Learning) were central in this journey. I have no better way of expressing my gratitude than to say kia ora. Dr Sara Cotterall, that smile and your words of encouragement at the ShutUp and Write sessions are invaluable. Prof. Dr Justo Bolekia Boleká, Prof. Mamadou Badiane, Prof. Adriana Mendez, Dr Sandra Hernández, Mr George Nimo, Miss Josephine Samani, Miss Edna Ovulley, Lawyer Christiana Awoonor, Laywer Emmanuel Amankwa, and Auntie Vivian Attah, Miss Thelma Quardey, Miss Miniruwan Samarakoon, Mr Edward Johnson, Miss Adobea Owoo, Miss Fafali Ivy Owusu, Miss Charlotte Ardey, Miss Sabina Hutchful, Miss Wendy Abbey, Dr Stella Makafui Yegblemenawo, Dr Seth Tweneboah, Dr Dorcas Dennis, Dr Comfort Max-Wirth, Dr Evelyn Yamoah, Dr Frederick Agbemade and Dr George Aberi deserve a special mention. I am also very grateful to Dr. V A. O. Lamptey for supervising my Master’s dissertation and introducing me to possibilities of research on Ghana and Cuba. I am iv particularly grateful to him for his counsel and for opening my eyes to “los matices y las franjas almacenados en la lengua pedestre.” Gracias Doctor Lamptey. This journey is not complete without the smiles and encouragements from Abigail, Kekeli and Kenny Graham, Maud and Dr Fred Acheampong, Suzy Atsu-Dogbe and Mawuko, Mrs Admire Memuna Barnes-Jackson, Mrs Christiane Ker and Dr Alastair Ker, Dr Eric and Dianah Boamah, Mr Osei and Freda Osei, Dr Emmanuel and Mrs Olivia Yamoah, Dr Emmanuael Ikechi, MaameDuraa and Kobby Antwi-Boasiako, Dr Tosin Popoola, Dr Patrich Coelho, Dr Jon Preston, Dr Evelyn Yamoah, Miss Fafali Ivy Owusu, Miss Winifred Bentsil, Miss Maureen Mwangi, Dr Mark Toomer, Xinqi (Aileen)Wang, Solomon Opare, Marisa McPherson, Chizo and Oyinka. To Pastors Peace and Willard Katumbu and the family of Christ for Salvation Ministries International, New Zealand I express my deep and heart-felt gratitude for the warmth and deep sense of belonging they provided me throughout my stay in New Zealand. I also sincerely appreciate Rev. Boamah and Rev. Mrs Agnes Phillips of Legon Interdenominational Church (LIC), Ghana for their prayers and support. To you all I say, Akpe na mi, Merci Beaucoup, Feichang ganxie nimen, Muchas gracias. v vi Contents Abstract ....................................................................................................................................... i Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................. iii Contents ................................................................................................................................... vii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 1 1.0 Idea of this Study and its Significance ........................................................................ 1 1.1 Organisation of the Thesis........................................................................................... 9 1.2 Justification of the Study: Why a Comparative Study? ............................................ 12 1.3 Themes and Points of Comparison............................................................................ 14 CHAPTER 2 HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF CUBA (1886-1958) ..............................................................