Cervantes-Mancing-132 12/8/00 1:22 PM Page 127 Prototypes of Genre in Cervantes’ Novelas ejemplares Howard Mancing arly in “El coloquio de los perros” Cipión makes a fun- damental distinction between two kinds of narrative accounts: “que los cuentos unos encierran y tienen la gracia en ellos mismos; otros, en el modo de contarlos” (Cervantes III, 247). Consistent with this, most readers of the Novelas ejemplares have perceived that the twelve stories in the collection are not of a single kind, that more than one concept of genre is to be perceived in the book. In this essay I would like to 1) look briefly at some attempts at designing a taxonomy of these novelas, 2) suggest a new way of considering the question of generic catego- rization, and 3) consider some broader implications of approaching literary texts from a theoretical perspective quite different from those that have been most prominent in the last quarter of a century. For the sake of simplicity and space, I use the following set of abbreviations:1 LG La gitanilla AL El amante liberal 1 In this abbreviation key, each novela is cited by the two initials most promi- nent in its title. Only “El celoso extremeño” is a little forced, cited as ZE, rather than CE, to avoid confusion with “El casamiento engañoso.” But this is, I be- lieve, a pardonable liberty, since Cervantes spelled zeloso with an initial z. 127 Cervantes-Mancing-132 12/8/00 1:22 PM Page 128 128 Howard Mancing Cervantes RC Rinconete y Cortadillo EI La española inglesa LV El Licenciado Vidriera FS La fuerza de la sangre ZE El celoso extremeño IF La ilustre fregona DD Las dos doncellas SC La señora Cornelia CE El casamiento engañoso CP El coloquio de los perros Taxonomies of the Novelas ejemplares I have made a fairly extensive (but not exhaustive) survey of at- tempts to divide the novelas into multiple categories in the last century and a half (see Appendix).2 A perusal of the Appendix makes it appar- ent that some unusual and highly original—even eccentric—tax- onomies have been invented. Consistent with the “two Cervantes” theme that has often run through Cervantes criticism, the tendency has been to divide the novelas into two absolutely distinct and irreconcil- able categories. As William C. Atkinson so succinctly put it, “Seven of the tales in the collection, as every critic has noted, are divided by an aesthetic abyss from the other five. These latter—those omitted by Ro- dríguez Marín in his Clásicos castellanos edition—have no claim to be either new or exemplary. Conceived in the Italianate tradition of amorous intrigue, incredible coincidence, and total innocence of philo- sophic intention, they constitute an artistic anachronism in the com- pany of the other seven” (194). About mid-century Agustín de Amezúa y Mayo wrote: “estimo superfluo e infundado el intento de algunos críticos de clasificar a las Novelas ejemplares en grupos fijos y determi- nados. Es prurito viejo, que trae su corriente desde muy lejos” (478).3 If nothing else, this survey shows that, in spite of the essentialist po- sition of scholars like Atkinson, generic boundaries do not exist in any absolute sense, but are imposed—sometimes in radically different 2 Particularly useful in reconstructing this history have been the monumen- tal study of Agustín G. Amezúa y Mayo and the bibliography of Dana B. Drake. 3 More recently, Ludovico Osterc echoes this position: “Tampoco faltan los comentadores de las novelas cervantinas que se han sentido movidos por un infantil anhelo de clasificarlas, pues si es difícil catalogar las piedras, plantas y animales del mundo material, tanto más difícil, por no decir imposible, resulta encasillar el mundo de la fantasía por su infinita variedad y falta de límites exactos entre una y otra” (23). Cervantes-Mancing-132 12/8/00 1:22 PM Page 129 20.2 (2000) Prototypes of Genre 129 ways—by a wide variety of readers. And once imposed, they are con- sidered to be a natural part of reality. As sociologist Eviatar Zerubavel notes, “boundaries are mere artifacts that have little basis in reality. It is we ourselves who create them, and the entities they delineate are, there- fore, figments of our own mind. Nonetheless, our entire social order rests on the fact that we regard these fine lines as if they were real” (3). I think, however, that as we come closer to the present it is pos- sible to see somewhat of a modern consensus—with clear exceptions such as the positions described by Julio Rodríguez-Luis, Luis A. Murillo, and Antonio Rey Hazas. Ruth El Saffar4 and E.C. Riley best represent this consensus, as they divide the novelas into two oppo- site types with an intermediate grouping. The first type is called “ro- mance” and includes AL, FS, EI, DD, and SC; in general these are also the stories that have been called “Italianate,” “idealistic,” and “romantic.” The second group is called “novel” and includes RC, LV, ZE, CE, and CP; other terms applied to these stories include “realis- tic,” “satiric,” or “picaresque.”5 The remaining two novelas, LG and IF, are generally considered to consist of a blend or mixture of the two types. I would like to reconsider the question of generic catego- rization not so much in order to arrive at a completely new way of dividing the stories into groups, but to make more precise the means by which we make generic distinctions and then to consider the con- sequences of the distinctions that result. The primary tools I will use come from two complementary sources: contemporary cognitive science and Mikhail Bakhtin. Principles of Categorization According to cognitive psychologist Diane Gillespie (165–66), a paradigmatic example of research in cognitive science was carried out in the late 1970s by Eleanor Rosch in the area of 4 El Saffar attempts to reverse the long and entrenched tendency to see Cer- vantes’s aesthetic and intellectual development from a youthful orientation to- ward romance toward a more mature novelistic orientation and makes a strong case for a “novel to romance” pattern. Though I think her thesis on chronology is not convincing and tends to frame her readings of specific novelas in some unfortunate and misleading ways, her general perception of the idealistic- realistic/romance-novel generic distinction is basically very perceptive. 5 The opening words of Thomas R. Hart’s recent book (1) on the Novelas are: “Scholars usually divide Cervantes’ Novelas ejemplares into two contrasting groups, just as they divide his writings as a whole into ‘realistic’ works like Don Quixote and ‘idealistic’ ones like La Galatea and Los trabajos de Persiles y Sigismunda.” Cervantes-Mancing-132 12/8/00 1:22 PM Page 130 130 Howard Mancing Cervantes categorization.6 The classical—Aristotelian—concept of a category is of something that objectively exists in the world. If a particular item meets certain necessary and sufficient conditions it is consid- ered to be a member of that category; if not, it is excluded. A thing cannot be A and not-A at the same time. It is an all-or-nothing propo- sition, one that is clear and simple, one that illustrates the dualism many people have perceived throughout the universe: win or lose; alive or dead; with me or against me; white or black. Categories are there, objective, directly perceivable by anyone. Rosch challenged this essentialist tradition and, in a series of elegant experiments, worked out an alternative, and much more powerful, model. Categories, Rosch showed, are much more like Wittgenstein’s “family resemblances” (1, 66–71) than the result of clearly-drawn lines of division. They are more like what mathematicians call “fuzzy sets.”7 That is to say, we can look at a group of persons or things and perceive a general resemblance or relationship among them, without being able to specify any set of necessary and suffi- cient conditions that they all meet. In a family, a group of cousins may all be clearly related, but their facial features, height, weight, eye and hair color, and so forth, differ considerably within the group and often share aspects of persons not related. Yet there is a loose set of traits that, though no one is shared by all, is more or less charac- teristic of the family. It is as though we had an idea of what a proto- typical member of the family might look like and found that all of the cousins pretty much approximated that model and that most others from outside the family did not. Indeed, it is the concept of the prototype that is at the heart of Rosch’s approach to categories. An illustration of how Rosch approached the problem is pro- vided if a number of individuals are asked to close their eyes and think of a bird. The mental image that most people conjure up is one of a robin, or perhaps a sparrow, a bluebird, or a wren. But it is less 6 Summaries of the work of Rosch and assessments of its importance can be found in Gillespie (165–75) and Lakoff (39–57). See also the useful summary of prototype theory by Geeraerts and the extensive consideration by Taylor (38–80). 7 Aristotelian logic was also characteristic of set theory where the “law of the excluded middle” reigned supreme until Lotfi Zadeh proposed the concept of fuzzy sets. In brief, Zadeh’s revolutionary theory was that a thing needn’t be ei- ther wholly in or wholly outside of a set, but could be partly in and partly out of it.