CULTURAL ORIGINS OF THE KAMIKAZE SPECIAL ATTACK CORPS AND THE 442ND REGIMENTAL COMBAT TEAM DURING WORLD WAR II: A COMPARISON BETWEEN THE JAPANESE SOLDIERS RAISED IN JAPAN AND THE NISEI SOLDIERS RAISED IN AMERICA By YUKIE O Bachelor of Arts in History Colorado State University Fort Collins, Colorado 2000 Master of Arts in History University of Central Oklahoma Edmond, Oklahoma 2002 Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate College of the Oklahoma State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY May 2011 © 2011, Yukie O ii CULTURAL ORIGINS OF THE KAMIKAZE SPECIAL ATTACK CORPS AND THE 442ND REGIMENTAL COMBAT TEAM DURING WORLD WAR II: A COMPARISON BETWEEN THE JAPANESE SOLDIERS RAISED IN JAPAN AND THE NISEI SOLDIERS RAISED IN AMERICA Dissertation Approved: Dr. Ronald A. Petrin Dissertation Adviser Dr. Yonglin Jiang Dr. Michael F. Logan Dr. R. Michael Bracy Dr. Jean Van Delinder Dr. Mark E. Payton Dean of the Graduate College iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS For the completion of my dissertation, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor and mentor, Dr. Ronald A. Petrin for the opportunity to study under his leadership as well as for his scholarly guidance, encouragement, and continuous support throughout the course of this study. Without Dr. Petrin’s understanding and patience, it would have been next to impossible for me to complete this study. I am especially indebted to Dr. Michael F. Logan for his extensive knowledge of World War II that has been the source of inspiration for me to pursue this study. Dr. Logan inspired a soul into my dissertation. I would also like to thank Dr. Michael Bracy for his intellectual input. I gained significant ideas through discussions with Dr. Bracy. I greatly appreciate Dr. Yonglin Jiang for his guidance, enthusiasm, and everlasting support even after leaving Oklahoma State University for Bryn Mawr College. My special appreciation is extended to Dr. Jean Van Delinder from the Department of Sociology for her invaluable suggestions and for serving as a member of my committee. Dr. Van Delinder’s suggestions definitely helped me improve the quality of my research. I would like to extend my appreciation to Dr. Xiaobing Li, Dr. Gary Steward, Dr. Walter Jung, and Dr. Edward L. Farmer for their insightful advice, encouragement, and friendship throughout my graduate study. Additionally, I am very grateful to the faculty and staff of the Department of History at Oklahoma State University for their great help, especially Diana Fry and Susan Oliver. I wish to thank all the people who have always iv believed in me. Finally, and most importantly, I would like to express my earnest appreciation to Hosok and HIHIKEN. Their eternal care, patience, and support have made not only the completion of my dissertation but also many years of graduate study possible. Therefore, I dedicate this dissertation to Hosok, HIHIKEN, my parents—Tadashi and Taeko Saito, and my grandparents—Eiichi and Mitsu Saito, and Takashi and Takako Takano, who have wholeheartedly encouraged me to pursue my study in the United States. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................1 Statement of Problem ...............................................................................................1 The Historiographical Context .................................................................................3 Research Methodology ..........................................................................................17 II. MEIJI EDUCATION SYSTEM..............................................................................22 Kokutai (National Essence/Polity) .........................................................................24 Shushin (Moral Education) ....................................................................................26 Gunjin Chokuyu (Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors) ................................31 Kyoiku Chokugo (Imperial Rescript on Education) .............................................34 Cultural Impact of Prewar Education ....................................................................40 Japanese in the United States .................................................................................43 Bushido: The Code of the Samurai ........................................................................47 Chapter Summary ..................................................................................................49 III. JAPANESE LANGUAGE SCHOOLS AND THE NISEI’S IDENTITY .............51 Background of the Establishment of Japanese Language Schools ........................52 Japanese Language Schools in Hawaii ..................................................................63 Japanese Language Schools in the Mainland United States ..................................79 Reasons to Go to Japanese Languages Schools .....................................................95 High Academic Achievement, Low Occupational Opportunity ..........................101 Meaning of Americanization for the Japanese Americans ..................................121 The Nisei’s Dilemma of Dual Citizenship ...........................................................123 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................126 IV. UTILIZATION OF NATIONALISM .................................................................132 Kokutai no Hongi (“Fundamentals of Our National Polity”) ..............................132 Senjinkun: Sources of the Strength of Japan .......................................................139 Prelude to World War II ......................................................................................145 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................157 vi Chapter Page V. CULTURAL ORIGIN OF THE KAMIKAZE SPECIAL ATTACK CORPS ....159 Background ..........................................................................................................159 Official Strategy of the Imperial Japanese Forces ...............................................170 Filial Piety ............................................................................................................174 Patriotism/Loyalty................................................................................................180 Imamura Shigeo—The Nisei Kamikaze ..............................................................183 Cultural Identity of the Kamikaze........................................................................184 Cultural Significance of Sakura (Cherry Blossoms) ............................................187 Reconsidering the Kamikaze Special Attack .......................................................189 General Tojo Hideki ............................................................................................192 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................199 VI. CULTURAL ORIGIN OF THE 442ND REGIMENTAL COMBAT TEAM ....201 Background ..........................................................................................................201 Filial Piety ............................................................................................................221 Comradeship ........................................................................................................227 Patriotism/Loyalty................................................................................................231 Significance of the Fred Korematsu Case and the Fair Play Committee .............242 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................252 VII. CONCLUSION: JAPANESE CULTURE .........................................................257 Similarities between the Kamikaze Pilots and the 442nd RCT ...........................262 Differences between the Kamikaze Pilots and the 442nd RCT ...........................264 Conclusion ...........................................................................................................265 BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................................................268 vii LIST OF TABLES Table Page 2.1 Virtues Taught in the Shushin Textbooks ........................................................30 3.1 Japanese in the Mainland U.S. and Hawaii, 1870–1940..................................54 3.2 Occupational Distribution of Japanese in Hawaii, 1919 ..................................74 3.3 Palama Japanese Language School Weekly Curriculum, 1931 .......................78 3.4 Japanese Language Schools in California, Oregon, and Washington, 1912 ...............................................................................83 3.5 Illiteracy Rate of Nonwhite Population of 10 Years and Up, 1910 ...............103 3.6 Occupations of Japanese Men in Mainland U.S., 1900–1940 .......................109 3.7 Occupations of Japanese Women in Mainland U.S., 1900–1940 ..................111 3.8 Occupational Distribution of Japanese in Los Angeles, 1934 .......................112 3.9 Occupational Distribution of Nisei in Los Angeles, 1940 .............................114 3.10 Number of Japanese Language Schools, Teachers, and Students on Mainland .............................................................................118 3.11 Number of Japanese