MONUMENTAL SHIFTS IN MEMORY THE EVOLUTION OF GERMAN WAR MEMORIALS FROM THE GREAT WAR TO THE END OF THE COLD WAR A Thesis by Sarah Elaine Lavallee Bachelor of Arts, Wichita State University, 2011 Bachelor of Fine Arts, Wichita State University, 2010 Submitted to the Department of History and the faculty of the Graduate School of Wichita State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts May 2014 © Copyright 2014 by Sarah Elaine Lavallee All Rights Reserved MONUMENTAL SHIFTS IN MEMORY THE EVOLUTION OF GERMAN WAR MEMORIALS FROM THE GREAT WAR TO THE END OF THE COLD WAR The following faculty members have examined the final copy of this thesis for form and content, and recommend that it be accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Arts, with a major in History. ______________________________________ John Dreifort, Committee Chair ______________________________________ Jay Price, Committee Member ______________________________________ Donald Gilstrap, Committee Member iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my adviser, John Dreifort, for his continuous support and advice during my years at Wichita State. I am also grateful for the assistance of Jay Price. Their guidance throughout my graduate career has been invaluable. I would also like to thank my committee member, Donald Gilstrap, for his helpful suggestions during my thesis research. I am also very grateful for my friends and family who have supported me throughout this project. Specifically, I would like to thank Shanna Brown for proofreading several drafts of this thesis. Additionally, I owe a debt of gratitude to Benny Knoblauch for his endless patience and understanding. iv ABSTRACT German war memorials post-1945 involved a complicated story of commemoration; the complexities ranged from war memorials adapted multiple times to fit contemporary needs, to military cemeteries which became controversial in the wake of World War II. The different memorial practices examined within this project include: Brandenburg Gate, Neue Wache, memorial sculptures by Gerhard Marcks, Bitburg cemetery, a memorial bell dedicated to Hermann Göring, and Neulandhalle (New Land Hall). The individual sites serve as examples of the combination of societal and political factors that influenced the original design and meaning of the locations, as well as the reinterpretations of them. The continually shifting character of German war memorials highlights the constantly evolving perception of German soldiers who participated in World War II. To differentiate between the actions of ordinary soldiers and the Nazi war criminals, Germans citizens attempted to attribute separate functions to these two groups. The result was that German soldiers increasingly began to share a status similar to other war victims. Other factors that influenced the development of war memorials included the different ideologies that dominated in the Soviet versus Western occupation zones, and debates about whether Germany was a defeated nation or a nation of victims liberated from the Nazi regime. Memorials function as a method for society to construct a shared history, educate future generations about their past, and create a common cultural identity. This purpose and significance helps to explain why these monuments can lead to debate and controversy. One of the main issues confronting German citizens in the aftermath of World War II was how to memorialize the soldiers who were killed while fighting for the Nazi regime. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. INTRODUCTION ..............................................................................................................1 II. BRANDENBURG GATE .................................................................................................24 III. NEUE WACHE .................................................................................................................42 IV. GERHARD MARCKS’ SCULPTURES ...........................................................................70 V. BITBURG CEMETERY ...................................................................................................94 VI. GÖRING’S BELL & NEULANDHALLE ......................................................................122 VII. CONCLUSION ...............................................................................................................139 BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................................153 APPENDICES ............................................................................................................................165 vi LIST OF IMAGES Image Page 1. Helmuth von Moltke and Otto von Bismarck in their military dress and Iron Crosses. Image source: John Lawson Stoddard, John L. Stoddard’s Lectures: Berlin, Vienna, St. Petersburg, Moscow (Boston: Balch Brothers Co., 1898), 6: 111. .....................................................................................................................................14 2. Image depicts the Imperial Eagle as interpreted during the reign of Kaiser Wilhelm I. Image source: Arthur Charles Fox-Davies, A Complete Guide to Heraldry, illustrated by Graham Johnston, (London: T.C. and E.C. Jack, 1909), 237. ...............................................................................................................................15 3. This Nazi era eagle was perched atop the barracks that housed Hitler’s SS bodyguards in Berlin. Image source: Wisniewski, Berlin-Lichterfelde, Kaserne der Leibstandarte-SS Adolf Hitler, Adler mit Hakenkreuz Auf der Kaserne, circa 1940, Bundesarchiv, accessed October 4, 2013, http://www.bild.bundesarchiv.de/archives/barchpic/search/_1380837655/?sear ch[view]=detail&search[focus]=1. ..........................................................................................17 4. Image demonstrates several variations to the Order of the Iron Cross from 1813-1870. Image source: Louis Schneider, Das Buch vom Eisernen Kreuze [The Book of Iron Crosses], Die Preussischen Orden, Ehrenzeichen und Auszeichnungen [The Prussian orders, decorations, and awards] 12 (Berlin: Duncker, 1872), 65. .................................................................................................................19 5. Image of a World War I era Iron Cross Second Class. Image source: Encyclopædia Britannica Online, s. v. "Iron Cross," accessed October 04, 2013, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/294416/Iron-Cross. Credited to Quintus Fabius Maximus. .....................................................................................21 6. Simplified drawing of the military honor bestowed during the Nazi era. Image source: Nazi Swastika with Iron Cross, 2005, Anti-Defamation League, accessed October 4, 2013, http://archive.adl.org/hate_symbols/neo-nazi_iron- cross.asp. ..................................................................................................................................21 7. Drawing of Brandenburg Gate circa 1898. Image source: John Lawson Stoddard, John L. Stoddard’s Lectures: Berlin, Vienna, St. Petersburg, Moscow (Boston: Balch Brothers Co., 1898), 6: 11. ...............................................................24 8. Image is an allegorical depiction of Prussia triumphing over France: Napoleon attempts to leave Berlin with his malnourished horses while the goddess of victory guides the Quadriga back toward Brandenburg Gate. The caption reads, “Arrogance took her away – bravery returns her.” Image source: Daniel Berger, Allegorical Depiction of the Return of the Quadriga to the Brandenburg Gate, 1814, Bildarchiv Preußischer Kulturbesitz, accessed October 4, 2013, http://germanhistorydocs.ghi- dc.org/sub_image.cfm?image_id=2696. ..................................................................................27 vii LIST OF IMAGES (continued) Image Page 9. Close up view of the Goddess’ staff after restoration (circa 1991). Image source: Joachim F. Thurn Berlin.- Brandenburger Tor, Quadriga. Preußischer Adler auf Eichenkranz am Stab der Göttin mit Eisernem Kreuz [Berlin - Brandenburg Gate., Quadriga. Prussian Eagle on an Oak Wreath with Iron Cross on the Goddess' Staff], 1991, Bundesarchiv, accessed October 4, 2013, http://www.bild.bundesarchiv.de/archives/barchpic/search/_1380899783/?sear ch[view]=detail&search[focus]=47. ........................................................................................28 10. Prussian troops parade home through Brandenburg Gate on June 16, 1871. Image source: F. Jamrath & Sohn, Troops Parade through the Brandenburg Gate (June 16, 1871), 1871, Bildarchiv Preußischer Kulturbesitz, accessed March 19, 2014, http://www.germanhistorydocs.ghi- dc.org/sub_image.cfm?image_id=1376. ..................................................................................29 11. Germans lined the streets to greet their troops in 1918. Friedrich Ebert consoled the soldiers, claiming they “have not been beaten on the battlefield.” Image source: Lorant, Sieg Heil!, 72-73. .................................................................................31 12. Nazi parade through Brandenburg Gate, circa 1933. Image source: Erich Czech-Jochberg, Vom 30 Januar zum 21 März [From January 30 to March 21] (Leipzig: Neues Deutschland, 1933). ................................................................................32 13. Unter den Linden was bedecked in swastika banners and a large parade was held in honor of Adolf