PRODUCING NATURE(S): A QUALITATIVE STUDY OF WILDLIFE FILMMAKING Addison Fay Kennedy A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate College of Bowling Green State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS August 2020 Committee: Lara Lengel, Advisor Cynthia Baron Clayton Rosati © 2020 Addison Kennedy All Rights Reserved iii ABSTRACT Lara Lengel, Advisor Focusing on the lived experiences of media producers, this study provides one of the first global and industry-level analyses of the wildlife film industry. The author draws on 13 in-depth interviews with a diverse group of freelance wildlife filmmakers, in addition to autobiographies and other accounts from professional wildlife filmmakers. Using systematic qualitative analysis of interview texts, the author examines the production of wildlife film from a critical interdisciplinary perspective and answers the following research questions. How are media representations of Nature shaped and conditioned by media forms and conditions production? How does the production ecology of wildlife filmmaking shape the content of specific wildlife films? What are the dominant interests of the wildlife film industry? How do wildlife filmmakers represent themselves and their work in an era of environmental crisis? Finally, how do wildlife filmmakers form communities of shared practices, languages, and cultural understandings of the world? Kennedy ultimately argues that the concept of the production of Nature dovetails with a production studies approach and provides a useful framework for evaluating the symbolic power of media institutions in shaping environmental discourse and cultural understandings of Nature. Following a Gramscian analysis, the thesis features a plethora of thought-provoking interview passages that help shed light on the relationship between creative labor, commercial interests, and technology in media production of Nature(s). A systematic qualitative analysis of these interview passages eventually charts the relevant themes of the sub-genre of ‘blue chip’ wildlife film. The author posits that this controversial style of wildlife film epitomizes the dualisms of ‘society-Nature’ and ‘human-Nature,’ explored by theorists such as Neil Smith, iv David Harvey, and Don Mitchell and then utilizes Jean Baudrillard’s philosophical treatise Simulacra and Simulations to theorize the relationship between wildlife filmmaking and what she calls ‘Nature’s veil.’ The thesis concludes that when the wildlife genre draws a categorical distinction between human and animal, society and nature it in effect de-politicizes nature and prevents audiences from imagining what a healthy and sustainable relationship with nature might look like. Instead, in the age of the Anthropocene, all forms of environmental media must work to destabilize the binary between nature and culture in order to see the human as part of nature and the environment rather than distinct from it. v For Buppa, who loved the wilderness for all its ambiguity. May he rest in peace. vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS First and foremost, I wish to express my deepest gratitude to my participants, who were willing to take time out of their busy professional lives to share their invaluable insights and industry experiences with a stranger. Admittedly, I was worried about finding professional wildlife filmmakers to participate in this study. I was both surprised and humbled by my participants’ patience and openness, particularly their willingness to help me push beyond the rudimentary questions in interviews. This thesis truly would not have been possible without your contributions. I would like to emphasize that I have the highest regard for the creative and artistic abilities of wildlife filmmakers. While they may appear to be the targets of my criticism, I am aware of their environmental ethics and desire to produce environmentalist content. I hope that it is clear that the purpose of this study is to increase the scholarly attention towards their work, not to diminish it. I would also like to acknowledge my indebtedness and render my warmest thanks to my supervisor, Dr. Lara Lengel. Her friendly guidance, enthusiasm, and encouragement have been invaluable throughout all stages of this project. I also wish to express my sincerest appreciation for the members of my committee. Thank you, Dr. Clayton Rosati, for extended discussions and valuable suggestions that have greatly influenced my theoretical and methodological considerations. The thesis has also benefited from comments and suggestions made by Dr. Cynthia Baron, whose seminar inspired this research. Your expertise in critical approaches to film and media helped me move beyond the unproductive segregation of cultural studies and political economy. Finally, writing this thesis would not have been possible without my extensive support system. Thank you to my loving partner, Kenneth Doherty, for your unwavering encouragement vii and support throughout this trying process – your pep talks were simply invaluable. I also want to thank my friend Tabetha Violet for peer-reviewing drafts on a weekly basis at the Learning Commons. Last but not least, thank you to my parents, Jeff and Lynn Kennedy, who have always supported my educational endeavors and never once questioned my desire to move to Ohio to pursue this degree. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 1 Wildlife Film as a Case Study in the Social Production of Nature ............................ 7 “Symbolic Annihilation”: The Remarkable Neglect of Wildlife Films from Media Studies............................................................................................................. 12 Cultural Critical Approaches to Wildlife Film .......................................................... 13 Theoretical Approaches to Wildlife Film .................................................................. 14 Historical Approaches to Wildlife Film ..................................................................... 15 Production Studies Approaches to the Wildlife Film Industry .................................. 16 Insider Accounts from Industry Professionals ........................................................... 17 Science and Technology Studies of Wildlife Film .................................................... 17 What is The Social Production of Nature? ................................................................ 19 From ‘The End of Nature’ to ‘The Anthropocene’ .................................................... 25 Nature is Complicated: Disciplinary Challenges to Studying Media at the Intersection of Nature and Culture ............................................................................. 30 CHAPTER II: THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS .............. 41 Theoretical Frameworks ............................................................................................ 41 Positionality ............................................................................................................... 42 Relevant Theories of Media Production .................................................................... 43 Methodology .............................................................................................................. 45 Method ....................................................................................................................... 49 Limitations and Justifications .................................................................................... 52 ix CHAPTER III: WILDLIFE FILM AND THE PRODUCTION OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE ...................................................................................................................... 57 From Showmanship to Science .................................................................................. 60 Mechanical Objectivity and Wildlife Film ................................................................ 63 The Making of Nature ................................................................................................ 69 Constructing the Telenaturalist Identity..................................................................... 75 Behaviorism ............................................................................................................... 85 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 90 CHAPTER IV: NATURE’S VEIL ........................................................................................ 92 Blue Chip Nature and Human-Nature Dualism ......................................................... 95 A Technological History of the Hobbyist Mode........................................................ 101 Money Shots: Funding and Wildlife Film ................................................................. 104 Hobbyist Filmmaking and the Tourist Gaze .............................................................. 106 We are all Bushmen: Wildlife Film and the Resurrection of Nature under the Auspices of the Real .................................................................................................. 112 ‘People Stories’ and The Real Nature ........................................................................ 114 CHAPTER V: CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................................... 118 REFERENCES .....................................................................................................................