Unity and Diversity: National Identity and Multiculturalism in Indonesia Budi Annisa Sidi A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Otago Dunedin New Zealand November 2019 Abstract In adherence to its national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika (Unity in Diversity), Indonesia maintains a narrative of a culturally plural but unified nation. The government represents a people of over 1,000 ethnic groups across six nationally recognised religions, spread across more than 17,000 islands. Within the context of the national motto, people are expected to share a similar civic Indonesian national identity regardless of their ethno- regional or religious backgrounds. At the same time, Indonesia’s approach towards multiculturalism extends various degrees of recognition, accommodation, toleration and even discrimination towards different socio-cultural groups in conjunction with the diverse ethnographic landscapes across regions in the country. Using theories of identity, nationalism and multiculturalism, this thesis examines how the Indonesian national identity is interpreted, experienced and understood both by elites and the people, particularly in consideration of the country’s ethno-regional, cultural and religious diversity. It begins with an explanation of the mixed methods within a qualitative paradigm used for this research and continues with an examination of the historical and constitutional framework for national identity and diversity in Indonesia. I then analyse the opinions of the people from Aceh, Jakarta, Maluku and West Java on the aspects of their identity pertaining to the ethno-regional, cultural and religious diversity in Indonesia, using information gained through individual in-depth interviews with laypeople as well as questionnaires and focus group discussions with university students. The different demographics in each region provide a good comparison between more homogeneous and heterogeneous populations, as well as between Muslim-majority and Christian-majority areas. To add other perspectives, I also examine the opinions of various types of elites on issues pertaining to identity and diversity in Indonesia gathered through individual interviews. I argue that in its attempt to maintain national identity and unity, the Indonesian state has adopted an unequitable framework for multiculturalism. While its design is intended to safeguard diversity, this framework has fostered an environment which normalises privileges for Indonesia’s Muslim majority and disadvantages for minorities. This framework corresponds with the relationship between national, ethno-regional and religious identities in Indonesia. Participants tend to describe the Indonesian national identity in civic and cultural terms, such as the shared history of struggle against colonialism and values such as diversity and tolerance. Participants further share the i narrative of the subordination of their ethno-regional identity to the Indonesian national identity. In contrast, religious identity is largely regarded as the most paramount: for the general population, religion is perceived as a fundamental source of moral guidance and more salient than national identity. This salience of religion helps explain the continued Islamist demands for more accommodation for Islam and Islamic law within the state, which in some instances include demands for a constitutional status for Islam. Indonesia’s framework for multiculturalism mollifies these demands but has detrimental side effects for minority groups; this framework thus safeguards and challenges diversity at the same time. Ultimately, I argue that the Indonesian state has to strike a better balance in accommodating various identities in the nation while maintaining its unity. ii Acknowledgements I would like to dedicate this thesis to my late mother, Dr. Jetty K. Karjadi, who finished her PhD in Civil Engineering way back in the 1980s and showed me since my early childhood that girls can do anything they set their minds to. I thank my family for their constant support, especially my husband Reza and my son Aslan who moved to New Zealand with me for this PhD. I also thank my father Boedi, my mother Ina and my brothers for their unwavering support and prayers. I thank the entire Politics Department at Otago, particularly my superb team of supervisors: Assoc. Prof Vicki Spencer, Assoc. Prof James Headley and Dr Lena Tan, as well as Otago’s Graduate Research School. I also thank Assoc. Prof Annabel Cooper for being an amazing examination convener. I have also been blessed with an amazing cohort of PhD students who went through various stages of the journey with me: Paul Winter, Arshad Ali, Caroline van Noort, Can Cinar, Lazslo Szollosi-Cira, Okan Tan, Eeva Kilk, Jessica Valisa and Hizkia Respatiadi. Special shoutout to Carmen Fulco for constantly taking good care of me in the last few months of the PhD! My Dunedin journey would not have been the experience that it was without the friendship and support of these amazing people: Jelita Noviarini, Emma Noviarini- Temple, Tsani Fauziah Rakhmah, Dody Wibowo, Lucía Malone, Claudia Leong, Adan E. Suazo and Gertje Petersen. You are very dear to me. I thank the Cantores Choir for giving me the experience of a community in Dunedin and keeping me sane through singing, particularly the lovely Nicky Cassie. I am also grateful to have supportive employers, superiors and colleagues at Indonesia’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs. My special appreciation goes out to the amazing Mashita Insani Kamilia for being my advisor on all things legal and more throughout my PhD. My special thanks also go out to my best girls since undergraduate days: Syafitri Rosediana Kannegieter, Tessa Filzana Sari, Dian Farhani and Jenice Nurul Ain, as well as my childhood best friend Tasya Febrina. Thank you all for everything. This PhD journey has been a blessing; it has been an uphill challenge, and at times felt like an impossible task. Nevertheless, I have grown up so much through the process, and I am eternally grateful for it. Alhamdulillah. iii Table of Contents Abstract.............................................................................................................................. i Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................ iii Table of Contents ............................................................................................................ iv List of Tables ................................................................................................................... vi List of Figures.................................................................................................................vii List of Abbreviations .................................................................................................... viii List of Appendices ............................................................................................................ x Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 1 1 Research Methodology ........................................................................................... 13 1.1 Research Methods for Studying Politics .......................................................... 13 1.2 Mixed methods within a primarily qualitative methodology........................... 16 1.3 Designing Fieldwork........................................................................................ 19 1.3.1 Determining Locations ............................................................................. 19 1.3.2 Elites and Laypeople: Semi-structured One-on-one Interviews ............... 24 1.3.3 Tertiary Students: Questionnaires and Focus Groups .............................. 32 1.3.4 Participant Observation ............................................................................ 36 1.4 Ethical Considerations ..................................................................................... 38 1.5 Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 40 2 Theoretical Framework .......................................................................................... 42 2.1 Identity ............................................................................................................. 43 2.2 Nationalism ...................................................................................................... 51 2.3 Multiculturalism............................................................................................... 62 2.4 Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 71 3 The Challenge of Identity Making, Nation Building and Cultural Pluralism in Indonesia......................................................................................................................... 74 3.1 The ‘National Awakening’ .............................................................................. 75 3.2 The Revolutionary Years ................................................................................. 82 3.3 The New Order ................................................................................................ 92 3.4 The post-1998 Reform Era ............................................................................ 103 3.5 Conclusion ....................................................................................................