University of South Florida Scholar Commons Graduate Theses and Dissertations Graduate School 11-10-2014 Predicting Adolescents' Academic Achievement: The onC tribution of Attention and Working Memory Diane Elizabeth Napier University of South Florida, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd Part of the Curriculum and Instruction Commons Scholar Commons Citation Napier, Diane Elizabeth, "Predicting Adolescents' Academic Achievement: The onC tribution of Attention and Working Memory" (2014). Graduate Theses and Dissertations. https://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/5544 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at Scholar Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Scholar Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Predicting Adolescents’ Academic Achievement: The Contribution of Attention and Working Memory. by Diane E. Napier A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Curriculum and Instruction Psychological and Social Foundations College of Education University of South Florida Major Professor: Darlene DeMarie, Ph.D. James King, Ed.D. Jeffrey Kromney, Ph.D. Barbara Shircliffe, Ph.D. Date of Approval: November 10th, 2014. Keywords: reading achievement, math achievement, written expression Copyright © 2014, Diane E. Napier Acknowledgments I would like to thank my Chair, Dr. Darlene DeMarie, for her patience in guiding me through this process. Your high expectations and high standards encouraged me to continue working to complete the finished product. This finished product is proof of your abilities as a wonderful dissertation chair. I also thank my committee members, Dr. James King, Dr. Jeffrey Kromrey, and Dr. Barbara Shircliffe for their expertise and patience with me throughout the writing of this dissertation. I also thank retired committee members Dr. Mary Lou Morton, and Dr. Nancy Williams for their guidance and instruction in the early development of this work. All of you made the writing of the dissertation a very valuable experience Table of Contents List of Tables vi List of Figures vii Abstract viii Chapter One: Introduction 1 Background of the Problem 1 Statement of the Problem 2 Purpose of the Study 8 Proposed Study 9 Overview of the Research Method and Design 10 Research Questions 10 Verbal working memory questions 10 Visual working memory questions 11 Theoretical Framework 12 Assumptions 13 Scope and Limitations 15 Delimitations 17 Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 18 A Historical Perspective 18 The Prediction of Ability and Academic Achievement 19 Intelligence tests 19 Working Memory 21 Three Perspectives of Working Memory 22 The Developmental Model 23 Pascual-Leone’s model 23 The Neuropsychological Model 25 Cowan’s model 25 The Cognitive Model 28 Baddeley’s Model 28 The Phonological Loop 29 The Visuo-sketchpad 30 The Central Executive 31 The Episodic Buffer 31 Working Memory as a Predictor of Academic Achievement 32 Working Memory with Children aged 4-10 32 Working Memory with Children aged 7-14 34 i New Trends in the Literature 35 Long-term Memory 36 Working Memory, Executive Function, and Inhibition 36 Attention and Working Memory 38 Inattention Problems 38 Working Memory and Clinical Population 39 Rogers et al. (2010) 40 Limitations within Working Memory Research 41 Participants 42 Outcome Measures 42 Prediction Tests 43 Single Predictor Tests 43 Moderator Variables 44 Omitted Variables 45 Bias in Testing 47 Criterion Bias 47 Construct Bias 47 Confirmational Bias 48 Methodological Measurement of Bias 48 Error Bias 49 The Present Study 50 Comparison of Rogers et al. (2012) and the Present Study 52 Participants 52 Diagnostic Measures 52 Verification of ADHD 52 Teacher Interview 52 Rating Scales 53 Verbal-Auditory Memory 56 Visual-Spatial Memory 56 Academic Achievement 57 Contribution to the Field 57 Chapter Three: Method 61 Method and Design 61 The Rationale 61 The Research Design 62 Research Questions 63 Verbal Working Memory Questions 63 Visual Working Memory Questions 64 Participants 64 Participant Selection 64 Participant Delimitations 66 Sample Size 68 Sampling Frame 69 Sampling Method 69 Geographic Location 69 ii Sampling Sources 69 Sampling Procedures 70 Sampling Time Frame 71 Informed Consent 71 Confidentiality 72 Procedure 72 Data Collection Procedures 72 Instrumentation 74 Behavior Assessment System for Children – 2nd Ed.(BASC-2) 74 Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children -4th Ed. (WISC-IV) 77 Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement – 3rd Ed. (WJ3) 79 Universal Nonverbal Intelligence Test (UNIT) 82 Order of Test Administration 84 Internal Validity for the Present Study 84 Threats to Validity for the Present Study 86 Data Analysis 87 Descriptive Statistics 87 Participants 87 Variables 87 Analysis 88 Correlational Analysis 88 Multiple Regression Analysis 88 Equations 89 Procedures 89 Interaction Statement 91 Summary 91 Chapter Four: The Results 93 Descriptive Statistics 93 Population 93 ADHD 93 Gender 96 Race/Ethnicity 96 Distribution of Scores 96 Analysis 97 Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Analysis 97 Attention 98 Academic Achievement and Working Memory 98 Analysis of Variances (ANOVAs) 99 Regression Analysis 99 Reading Achievement by Verbal Working Memory 100 Math Achievement by Verbal Working Memory 102 Written Achievement by Verbal Working Memory 105 Reading Achievement by Visual Working Memory 108 Math Achievement by Visual Working Memory 110 Written Achievement by Visual Working Memory 113 iii Summary 117 Chapter Five: The Discussion 118 Goals and Research Findings 118 Goal One: The Prediction of Academic Achievement by Working Memory 118 Reading 119 Math 122 Written Expression 123 Verbal Working Memory 123 Visual Working Memory 124 Goal Two: Do Attention Problems Add to the Prediction? 124 Goal Three: Do Attention Problems Moderate the Relations? 127 Limitations of Present Study 129 Threats to Internal Validity 129 Selection of Subjects 129 Within Participant Differences 129 Age of Participants 130 Diagnosis of ADHD 130 Race/Ethnicity 130 Social-Economic Class 131 Threats to External Validity 131 Construct of Attention 132 Learning Environment 133 Academic Achievement Assessments 133 Teacher Instructional Style 135 Contributions to the Field 135 Significant Findings 135 Verbal Working Memory 135 Visual Working Memory 135 Behavioral Inattention 136 Academic Achievement 137 Racial/Ethnicity 137 Recommendations for Future Research 139 Conclusion and Implications for Educators 140 References 143 Appendices 163 Appendix A.: Minimal Risk Informed Consent Form 164 Appendix B. Child Assent Form 175 Appendix C. Demographic Form 180 Appendix D. Flyer to recruit participants 182 iv List of Tables Table 1. Order of Test Administration 83 Table 2. Key for Abbreviations in Regression Equations: Questions “a” 88 Table 3. Key for Abbreviations in Regression Equations: Questions “b” 89 Table 4. Key for Abbreviated terms in Regression Equations: Questions “c” 89 Table 5. Frequency of ADHD by Gender and Ethnicity 94 Table 6. Frequency and Percentage of ADHD by Gender and Ethnicity 95 Table 7. Mean Scores of Achievement by Gender 95 Table 8. Mean Scores by Race/Ethnicity 97 Table 9. Distribution of Scores by Variable 98 Table 10. Bi-Variate Intercorrelations of the Variables 98 Table 11. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Between Subjects and Gender 99 Table 12. Regression Analysis: Reading Achievement and Verbal Working Memory 103 Table 13. Regression Analysis: Math Achievement and Verbal Working Memory 105 Table 14. Regression Analysis: Written Expression and Verbal Working Memory 108 Table 15. Regression Analysis: Reading by Visual Working Memory 111 Table 16. Regression Analysis: Math by Visual Working Memory 114 Table 17. Regression Analysis: Writing by Visual Working Memory 116 v List of Figures Figure 1. Baddeley’s Model of Working Memory 3 Figure 2. Baddeley’s Model of Working Memory 28 Figure 3.1. The Relation between Working Memory and Academic Achievement 58 Figure 3.2. The Relation between Attention and Academic Achievement 59 Figure 3.3. Does Attention Moderate the Prediction of Academics by Working Memory? 60 Figure 4. Frequency of Students with ADHD by Ethnicity 94 Figure 5. Reading Achievement by Verbal Working Memory 101 Figure 6. Math Achievement by Verbal Working Memory 104 Figure 7. Written Expression by Verbal Working Memory 107 Figure 8. Reading Achievement by Visual Working Memory 109 Figure 9. Math Achievement by Visual Working Memory 112 Figure 10. Written Expression by Visual Working Memory 115 vi Abstract The present study examined the direction and strength of the relation between three different areas academic achievement and working memory with adolescent students. The data analyzed included ratings for inattention, a diagnosis of ADHD (or not), and demographic information for race/ethnicity. Fifty children aged 11 to16 years of age participated in the study. Participants were recruited from several middle schools, homeschooling networks, and churches from a southeastern state of the United States. Each participant completed a standardized achievement test, a behavioral rating scale, and visual and verbal working memory tests. The research questions investigated: 1) the relation between visual and verbal working memory with each of three areas of academic achievement; 2) whether the relation between visual and verbal working