ABSTRACT Title of Dissertation: SITES OF BELONGING, SITES OF EMPOWERMENT: HOW ASIAN AMERICAN GIRLS CONSTRUCT “HOME” IN A BORDERLAND WORLD Tomoko Tokunaga, Doctor of Philosophy, 2012 Directed By: Professor Barbara Finkelstein Department of Teaching and Learning, and Policy and Leadership This ethnographic study explores the ways in which nine first, 1.5, and second generation Asian American high school girls imagine, search for, and construct home- like sites. The study revealed that “home” for the girls was not only the place where the girls sleep, their families reside, or the country from where they came. Instead, “home,” was multiple, literal, and imagined spaces, places, and communities where the girls felt a sense of belonging, empowerment, community, ownership, safety, and opportunity. In order to examine the behaviors, meaning, and perspectives of these girls, I conducted participant observations, interviews, and focus groups at an Asian American youth organization as well as in the girls’ homes, schools, and neighborhoods. I also had online communication with the girls and collected supplementary materials and sources. The study revealed that the girls had creativity and improvisational skills to invent various “homes” as they linked the many worlds in which they lived. The girls carved out multiple “homes”—through imagining belonging globally while building belonging locally. They imagined an expansive understanding of “home” in the deterritorialized world. They idealized their countries of origin, acknowledged the United States as a possible “home,” portrayed a third possible homeland where they had never lived, and fashioned a pan-Asian consciousness. The girls not only imagined “homes” outside of their immediate view but also co-constructed a home-like community in their everyday lives. They named it the Basement Group, after the place where they hang out in school. They developed a group identity which honored five characteristics: 1) expansion of who is family to include friends, 2) pride in diversity and inclusivity, 3) celebrations of cultural fusion, 4) value of “natural” girlhood beauty, and 5) shared interest in Asian popular culture. They constructed a borderland community in which they could collectively celebrate and nurture their in-between lives. This study illuminated the power and complexity of their lives in-between as well as expanded the terrains of agency that the girls possessed. The study also revealed intersectional differences among the girls. It provided lessons for youth organizations and schools to create spaces where immigrant youth can thrive. SITES OF BELONGING, SITES OF EMPOWERMENT: HOW ASIAN AMERICAN GIRLS CONSTRUCT “HOME” IN A BORDERLAND WORLD By Tomoko Tokunaga Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland, College Park, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2012 Advisory Committee: Professor Barbara Finkelstein, Chair Professor Francine Hultgren Professor Seung-Kyung Kim Professor Lisa Rose Mar Professor Ryoko Tsuneyoshi © Copyright by Tomoko Tokunaga 2012 Dedication For my parents and brothers who have sent me support from across oceans and many lands. Thank you always for being with me in my searching-for-home journey. ii Acknowledgements My scholarly journey stems from my life-long immigrant experiences of crossing multiple national and cultural borders. I was born on a farm in rural Japan, lived much of my life in a suburb of Tokyo and the rest of my life abroad–in Indonesia and in the United States. Living on the “thin edge of barbwire” as Anzaldúa (2007, p. 35) describes a border, I navigated the omnipresent policing of various identity borders—for example, to be a “good Japanese girl” or “pure Japanese” in Japan or a “typical Asian woman” in the United States—which defined who I could be, who I could imagine myself to be, or who I should be. My yearning for belonging in the midst of alienation without having to assimilate or segregate myself has evolved into my life-long work as a scholar committed to the lives of people who inhabit the borderlands, specifically immigrant girls. I have been fortunate enough to build multiple homes in my scholarly journey. The University of Maryland has been an academic home which helped me become an interdisciplinary and intersectional scholar. Specifically, I would like to thank my committee members for providing me guidance and support. Dr. Barbara Finkelstein, my advisor and a mentor in the United States, has introduced me to transcultural concepts, has consistently pushed me to think outside of my understandings, and has been an advocate for my intellectual endeavors. Dr. Ryoko Tsuneyoshi, my advisor and a mentor in Japan, has guided me and has provided me invaluable insights as an ethnographer since I started my Master’s Program at the University of Tokyo. Dr. Francine Hultgren has always been passionate and supportive of my research on “home” for immigrant girls and has encouraged me to continue my intellectual journey. Dr. Seung-Kyung Kim has empowered my thinking and has given me informative tools and lens to explore the lives iii of Asian American girls and women. Dr. Lisa Rose Mar has showed great interest and passion in my work and has connected me to the field of Asian American studies. I also want to express my sincere appreciation to Beth Douthirt-Cohen, Raquel González, and Mark Brimhall-Vargas, my friends as well as members of our dissertation support group, for providing me an intellectual and emotional home. They have inspired me, encouraged me, and supported me in so many ways that without them, I would not have been able to stand where I am now. I also want to acknowledge Lattisha Hall, staff in my department, for always listening to my struggles as an international student and for helping me navigate the foreign education system. Thank you to the staff at the Office of Diversity Education and Compliance for having me as a Graduate Assistant and offering me such a welcoming home. Also thank you to Dan, Julie, Kaoru, Kozue, Nanae, Naka, Sumire, and Ted for supporting me in this journey. I also deeply acknowledge the financial support I received at the University of Maryland which enabled me to conduct my dissertation study. They are: Support Program for Advancing Research and Collaboration Graduate Student Research Support Award, Graduate Student Summer Research Fellowship, Mimi Kuriyama Fellowship, Joint Undergraduate Studies and Asian American Studies Initiative Fund, College of Education Scholarship, and Ann G. Wylie Dissertation Fellowship. I am also grateful for the Fulbright Program which made it possible for me to study in the United States. Lastly, I express my sincere thanks to the Asian American youth organization for letting me join their community and assisting me with my research. And my deepest thanks to the girls for sharing their stories and experiences and welcoming me into their lives. I learned so much from them and I am so grateful for all the encounters. iv Table of Contents Dedication .......................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents .............................................................................................................. v List of Tables and Figures .............................................................................................. vii Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................... 1 Research Questions ......................................................................................................... 4 Literature Review and Significance of Study ................................................................. 7 Literature on Identities and Experiences of Asian American Youth ...................... 7 Literature on “Home” for Immigrants .................................................................. 11 Literature on In-Between Spaces for and by Young People ................................. 14 Overview of the Chapters ............................................................................................. 17 Chapter 2: Methodology................................................................................................. 19 Ethnography .................................................................................................................. 19 Sites of Study ................................................................................................................ 22 Data Collection ............................................................................................................. 27 Participant Observation ......................................................................................... 27 Interview ............................................................................................................... 29 Focus Group .......................................................................................................... 31 Online Engagement ............................................................................................... 31 Document Collection ............................................................................................ 33 Ethnographic Reflexivity .............................................................................................