MONKEY AND APE ICONOGRAPHY IN MINOAN ART A Dissertation Submitted to the Temple University Graduate Board In Partial Fulfillment The Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY OF ART HISTORY by Marie N. Pareja Diploma Date December 2015 Examining Committee Members: Philip P. Betancourt, Advisory Chair, Art History Jane D. Evans, Art History Marcia B. Hall, Art History Thomas Tartaron, External Member, University of Pennsylvania © Copyright 2015 by Marie Nicole Pareja All Rights Reserved ii ABSTRACT This dissertation examines monkey and ape iconography in Minoan art during the Aegean Bronze Age (ca. 3,000–1,100 B.C.). Although a broad range of animals exist for depiction, Minoan artists carefully selected each subject in order to fulfill specific roles. Monkeys and apes appear to function differently than the other creatures that are depicted in art. Rather than subscribing to the general roles played by other animals, these primates may be shown outdoors, behaving like wild animals, or in a ceremonial context, participating in a ritual. Monkeys also imitate human activities. The deviation of primates from the typical roles of other animals found in Minoan art invites a deeper investigation of the role and iconography of apes and monkeys. In this study, three types of media that bear depictions of primates are considered. These media include figurines, glyptic art, and wall paintings. First, a review of the stylistic features of Minoan art and the possibility for the use of pattern books is discussed. Next, monkey and ape iconography in Egyptian art is explored. A thorough review of the creatures’ iconography in Minoan art follows, which includes the identification of figures as either ape or monkey, as well as a detailed description and conclusions about each type of representation. A new possible reconstruction of the Saffron Gatherer fresco is also included. Finally, the possible origins of Minoan primate iconography are considered, as well as the possible implications of the creature’s history, development, and roles. With this information in mind, the Offering to the Seated Goddess scene is then examined. The possible reconstruction of a crocus ceremony is proposed and explained, and the Levantine parallels for the compositional arrangement of iii the scene are also addressed. These conclusions may directly inform greater themes in Minoan culture, such as religion and cult practices. iv To my mother, who sets the sky as the limit. To my brother, who keeps me grounded. To my partner, who flies by my side. v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Several different people and institutions provided assistance and support for this project. First, thanks are due for the help granted from the following museums: the Archaeological Museum of Hagios Nikolaos, the Archaeological Museum of Chania, the Archaeological Museum of Herakleion, the Archaeological Museum of Thera, the Ashmolean Museum, the British Museum, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Anthropology and Archaeology. My gratitude is extended to Christos Doumas and Andreas Vlachopoulos for access to the fresco material that is not on public view. I am also thankful for the advice of many types granted by several individuals, including Susan Alt, Vili Apostolakou, Meghan Buchanan, Ann P. Chapin, Alexandra Karetsou, Jonathan D. Kline, Margaretha Kramer-Hajos, Tim Pauketat, Giorgos Rhethemiotakis, Elizabeth B. Shank, Chryssa Sofianou, and Maria Vlasaki. Ingo Pini, Walter Müller, and Diamantis Panagiotopoulos, at the Universities of Heidelberg and Marburg, also have my gratitude for access to the Corpus der Minoischen und Mykenischen Siegel. Thanks are also due to the primatologists from the Columbus Zoo, particularly Audra Meinelt, the assistant curator at the Congo Expedition. I am also grateful for the help provided by Barbara Watanabe, the microscopy lab, and the conservation lab in the Department of Anthropology at the Smithsonian Institution. My gratitude also extends to Thomas Brogan, Director of the INSTAP Study Center for East Crete in Pacheia Ammos, and Eleanor Huffman, the Business Administrator, both of whom were helpful in numerous ways. I am also grateful to Maria Vlasaki, Elizabeth vi Shank, and Angeliki Kaitirmoglou, who provide the opportunity to study Bronze Age wall paintings from Chania. Financial support for this project was provided by Temple University in Philadelphia, in the form of the Dean’s Grant, summer research grants, graduate teaching grants, and travel grants. The University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia also provided funding for this dissertation. The Institute for Aegean Prehistory (INSTAP) supported this project in the form of both the Corpus of Aegean Wall Paintings Fellowship and summer travel grants. The writing of this dissertation would not be possible without the help and support of Professors Philip P. Betancourt, Jane D. Evans, Marcia B. Hall, and Thomas Tartaron. The well of enthusiastic support and expansive experience of each of these individuals is illustrative of that which makes an outstanding scholar and person. Finally, thanks are due to my family. I am grateful to my mother for her endless support. My gratitude is also extended to my brother, for his ability to keep me grounded, humble, and laughing. I am forever grateful to my partner for his patience, enthusiastic curiosity, and continual support. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………. iii DEDICATION………………………………………………………………………….. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS…………………………………………………………….. vi LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………………. xiii CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………………………. 1 2. INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY: THE MINOAN STYLE AND THE USE OF “PATTERN BOOKS” ……………………………………………………………….. 3 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………... 3 The Minoan Style ……………………………………………………………….. 3 Composition……………………………………………………………... 5 Mixed Perspective ………………………………………………………. 7 Contour Emphasis ………………………………………………………. 9 Use of Line …………………………………………………………….. 11 Simplification ………………………………………………………….. 11 Flattened Colors and Patterns ………………………………………….. 13 Summary …….………………………………………………………… 15 “Pattern Books” ………………………………………………………………... 15 Summary ……………………………………………………………….. 22 viii 3. PRIMATE ICONOGRAPHY IN ANCIENT EGYPT ……………………………… 23 Introduction …………………………………………………………………….. 23 Monkey Deities…………………………………………………………………. 23 Hedj-wer (“The Great White One”) ……………………………………. 24 Thoth ………………………………………………………………….... 25 Figurines ……………………………………………………………………….. 26 Wall Paintings …………………………………………………………………. 28 Plaques …………………………………………………………………………. 33 Discussion ……………………………………………………………………… 34 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………… 39 4. MINOAN PRIMATE FIGURINES ………………………………………………… 41 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………. 41 Minoan Primate Iconography…………………………………………………... 44 Single Seated Squat Primate Figurine ………………………………….. 44 Single Elongated Seated Primate Figurine …………………………….. 46 Squat Double-Figure Primate Figurine ………………………………… 47 Discussion………………………………………………………………………. 48 Egyptian Connections ………………………………………………….. 50 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………... 53 5. MONKEYS IN MINOAN GLYPTIC ART ………………………………………… 55 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………. 55 Difficulties with Glyptic Arts …………………………………………………. 56 Monkey Iconography in Glyptic Art ………………………………………….. 57 ix Context ………………………………………………………………… 58 Company ……………………………………………………………….. 60 Pose …………………………………………………………………….. 62 Discussion ……………………………………………………………………… 66 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………... 73 6. MONKEYS GATHER SAFFRON AT KNOSSOS (THE LOWER KEEP, KNOSSOS, CRETE) ……………………………………………………………………………… 75 Introduction …………………………………………………………………….. 75 Description……………………………………………………………………… 76 Discussion …………………………………………………………………….... 81 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………... 87 7. MONKEYS EXPLORE A FERTILE LANDSCAPE (ROOM Q, THE HOUSE OF THE FRESCOES, KNOSSOS, CRETE) ……………………………………………. 88 Introduction …………………………………………………………………….. 88 Description……………………………………………………………………… 88 Discussion ……………………………………………………………………… 95 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………... 99 8. MONKEYS BEHAVE LIKE ANIMALS (ROOM 6, BUILDING COMPLEX BETA, AKROTIRI, THERA) …………………………………………………………….... 100 Introduction …………………………………………………………………… 100 Description…………………………………………………………………….. 100 Discussion …………………………………………………………………….. 104 Faces: Monkeys B1, B2, and B5………………………………………. 104 x Bodies: Monkeys B1–B8……………………………………………… 108 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………. 112 9. MONKEYS IN AND AROUND A SHRINE (FRAGMENTS FROM SECTOR ALPHA, AKROTIRI, THERA) …………………………………………………… 114 Introduction …………………………………………………………………….114 Description…………………………………………………………………..….115 Discussion …………………………………………………………………..….118 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………….….123 10. MONKEYS WITH A HARP, SWORD, AND SCABBARD (ROOM 4, XESTE 3, AKROTIRI, THERA) ……...………………………………………………………126 Introduction ………………...…………………………………………………. 126 Description………………………..…………………………………………….126 Discussion ………………………………..…………………………………….131 Conclusion …………………………………….……………………………….135 11. A MONKEY MAKES AN OFFERING (ROOM 3A, XESTE 3, AKROTIRI, THERA) ……………………………………………………………………..……. 136 Introduction …………………………………………………………………….136 Description………………………………………………………..…………….137 Discussion …………………………………………………………..………….141 Conclusion …………………………………………………………….……….146 12. SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION OF MINOAN MONKEY AND APE ICONOGRAPHY ………………………………………………………………….147 Introduction …………………………………………………………………….147 xi Conceptual Roles …………………………………………………………..…. 147 Animal World ……………………………………………………….…148