TECHNICAL SUPPORT DOCUMENT TO THE PRELIMINARY ASSESSMENT OF THE FWS – HAWAIIAN ISLANDS NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE: TERN ISLAND SITE IN THE FRENCH FRIGATE SHOALS, HAWAIʻI Prepared for the United States Environmental Protection Agency Prepared by: DER WESTON SOLUTIONS, INC. 841 Bishop Street Suite 2301 Honolulu, Hawaii 808-275-2900 Fax 808-585-7378 EPA ID: HI0000906379 Site ID: 0906379 September 2014 Technical Support Document for Tern Island Preliminary Assessment Technical Support Document for Tern Island Preliminary Assessment TABLE OF CONTENTS Section Page 1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 1-1 1.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 1-1 1.2 PURPOSE OF THE TECHNICAL SUPPORT DOCUMENT ............................................ 1-2 1.3 DOCUMENT AVAILABILITY .......................................................................................... 1-7 2 REGULATORY INVOLVEMENT .................................................................................. 2-1 2.1 JURISDICTION ................................................................................................................... 2-1 2.2 PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT CO-TRUSTEES ... 2-1 2.3 U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE .............................................................................. 2-1 2.4 U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY ........................................................ 2-2 3 HISTORY ............................................................................................................................ 3-1 3.1 EARLY HISTORY: 1750-1900 ........................................................................................... 3-1 3.2 1900-WWII .......................................................................................................................... 3-2 3.3 MILITARY OCCUPATION OF TERN ISLAND 1942-1979 ............................................ 3-2 3.4 FWS MANAGEMENT OF TERN ISLAND: 1979 TO PRESENT .................................... 3-5 3.5 CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE HISTORY OF TERN ISLAND.................... 3-5 3.6 SEAWALL REPAIR ............................................................................................................ 3-7 4 ENVIRONMENT ............................................................................................................... 4-1 4.1 PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT ............................................................................................ 4-1 4.1.1 Geology ............................................................................................................................ 4-1 4.1.2 Hydrology ........................................................................................................................ 4-2 4.1.3 Soils and Sediments ......................................................................................................... 4-2 4.1.3.1 Microbial Environment ................................................................................................. 4-3 4.1.4 Climate ............................................................................................................................. 4-4 4.1.4.1 Wind .............................................................................................................................. 4-4 4.1.5 Seawater Temperature ..................................................................................................... 4-5 4.1.6 Sea Level Rise; Variations and Trends ............................................................................ 4-6 4.1.7 Currents ............................................................................................................................ 4-9 4.1.8 Waves ............................................................................................................................. 4-12 4.1.8.1 Productivity and the Chlorophyll-a Front .................................................................... 4-12 4.2 BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT ..................................................................................... 4-14 4.2.1.1 Fish .............................................................................................................................. 4-14 4.2.1.2 Coral ............................................................................................................................ 4-21 4.2.1.3 Algae ............................................................................................................................ 4-26 4.2.1.4 Invertebrates ................................................................................................................ 4-26 4.2.2 Terrestrial Community ................................................................................................... 4-29 4.2.2.1 Vegetation .................................................................................................................... 4-29 4.2.2.2 Birds ............................................................................................................................ 4-30 4.2.3 Marine Protected Species ............................................................................................... 4-43 i Technical Support Document for Tern Island Preliminary Assessment 4.2.3.1 Cetaceans ..................................................................................................................... 4-43 4.2.3.2 Hawaiian Monk Seal ................................................................................................... 4-44 4.2.3.3 Sea Turtles Other than the Hawaiian Green Sea Turtle............................................... 4-53 4.2.3.4 Green Sea Turtle .......................................................................................................... 4-53 4.3 SUMMARY OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION ........................................... 4-60 4.3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 4-60 4.3.2 Summary of Contamination, Sampling, and Cleanup Efforts ....................................... 4-61 4.3.2.1 Navy and USCG Use ................................................................................................... 4-61 4.3.2.2 FWS Management ....................................................................................................... 4-65 4.3.2.3 1992 21 UST Removal by USACE ............................................................................. 4-65 4.3.2.4 1997 AST Closure ....................................................................................................... 4-67 4.3.2.5 1997 Geophysical Investigation .................................................................................. 4-67 4.3.2.6 1997 Subsurface Soil Sampling USCG ....................................................................... 4-67 4.3.2.7 1998 FWS Biota and Sediment PCBs and Metals in Marine Species ......................... 4-67 4.3.2.8 1998 US Navy Reserve HAZMAT SCUBA Cleanup ................................................. 4-68 4.3.2.9 1999 USCG Environmental Investigation of Former LORAN Station ....................... 4-72 4.3.2.10 1999 FWS Marine Sediment and Tissue Analysis ...................................................... 4-78 4.3.2.11 2002 USCG Voluntary Remediation and Verification Report .................................... 4-84 4.3.2.12 2004 UST Closure by FWS ......................................................................................... 4-85 4.3.3 Remaining Contamination ............................................................................................. 4-89 4.3.4 Contaminant Hazards ..................................................................................................... 4-89 4.3.4.1 PCBs ............................................................................................................................ 4-89 4.3.4.2 Hydrocarbons .............................................................................................................. 4-93 4.3.4.3 Heavy Metals ............................................................................................................. 4-100 4.3.4.4 Dioxins and Furans .................................................................................................... 4-102 5 PLASTICS IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT .......................................................... 5-1 5.1 PERSISTENT BIOACCUMLATIVE AND TOXIC SUBSTANCES AND PLASTICS ... 5-3 5.1.1 Hyperconcentration .......................................................................................................... 5-4 5.1.2 Bioconcentration and Biomagnification .......................................................................... 5-5 5.2 PLASTIC MOVEMENT ...................................................................................................... 5-7 5.2.1 Horizontal and Vertical Migration ................................................................................... 5-7 5.2.2 Uptake into the Food Chain ............................................................................................. 5-8 5.3 TERN ISLAND DEPOSITION ........................................................................................... 5-9 5.4 PLASTICS IN SEABIRDS ...............................................................................................