Police Use of Force: The Impact of Less-Lethal Weapons and Tactics by Philip Bulman A new study suggests that less-lethal weapons decrease rates of officer and offender injuries. n the mid-19th century, police offi­ the University of South Carolina, cers in New York and Boston relied recently completed an NIJ-funded Ion less-lethal weapons, mostly study of injuries to officers and civil­ wooden clubs. By the late 1800s, ians during use-of-force events. police departments began issuing Injury rates to civilians ranged from firearms to officers in response to 17 to 64 percent (depending on the better-armed criminals. Today, many agency reporting) in use-of-force law enforcement agencies are again events, while injury rates to offi­ stressing the use of less-lethal weap­ cers ranged from 10 to 20 percent. ons, but they are using devices that Most injuries involved minor bruises, are decidedly more high-tech than strains and abrasions. Major inju­ their 19th-century counterparts. ries included dog bites, punctures, broken bones, internal injuries and Use of force, including less-lethal gunshot wounds. weaponry, is nothing new to polic­ ing, and in any use-of-force incident, injury is a possibility. Researchers Can New Technologies have estimated that between 15 and Decrease Injuries? 20 percent of arrests involve use of Advances in less-lethal technology force. A group of researchers led offer the promise of more effective by Geoffrey P. Alpert, professor of control over resistive suspects with criminology and criminal justice at 4 NIJ JOURNAL / ISSUE NO. 267 If injury reduction fewer serious injuries. Pepper spray likelihood of officer injury; Taser use was among the first of these newer, is the primary goal, by the Seattle Police Department, less-lethal weapons to achieve wide­ however, similarly showed no effect spread adoption by police forces. agencies that deploy on the likelihood of officer injury. More recently, conducted energy This suggests that not every agen­ devices (CEDs), such as the Taser, pepper spray and cy’s experience with CEDs will be have become popular. the same. CEDs are clearly at More than 11,000 American law Miami-Dade Police Department an advantage. Both enforcement agencies use CEDs, With 3,000 officers, the Miami-Dade but their use has not been with­ weapons prevent Police Department (MDPD) is the out controversy. Organizations such largest law enforcement agency in as Amnesty International and the or minimize the the southeast. American Civil Liberties Union have questioned whether CEDs can physical struggles The MDPD started using Tasers in be used safely, and whether they 2003. By May 2006, about 70 per­ contribute to civilian injuries and in- that are likely to injure cent of the officers carried Tasers. custody deaths. Policymakers and The researchers examined 762 use­ law enforcement officials want to officers and of-force incidents between January know whether CEDs and other 2002 and May 2006. Most injuries less-lethal weaponry are safe and suspects alike. were minor, and officers were sub­ effective, and how police should stantially less likely to be injured use them. than suspects, with 17 percent of force level used by deputies officers injured and 56 percent of Analysis of Information (59 percent of incidents) was soft suspects injured. from Specific Law empty hand control (e.g., holding Use of both soft hand tactics and Enforcement Agencies a suspect to restrain him), which increased the odds of officer injury hard hand tactics (e.g., using kicks Alpert’s research on use of force by 160 percent. or punches to restrain a suspect) by and less-lethal weapons, in part, officers more than doubled the odds focused on data gathered from Pepper spray decreased the odds of of officer injury. Hands-on tactics three law enforcement agencies — suspect injury by almost 70 percent, also increased the odds of injury to the Richland County (S.C.) Sheriff’s and a deputy aiming a gun at a sus­ suspects, as did the use of canines. Department, the Miami-Dade pect reduced his or her injury odds Taser use, however, was associated (Fla.) Police Department and the by more than 80 percent (the act with a reduction in the likelihood of Seattle Police Department. of pointing a gun alone often effec­ both officer and suspect injury. tively ends a suspect’s resistance). Richland County Sheriff’s The use of a canine posed, by far, Seattle Police Department Department the greatest injury risk to suspects, The Seattle Police Department Approximately 475 sworn officers increasing injury odds almost forty- (SPD) has about 1,200 sworn from the Richland County Sheriff’s fold. Suspects who displayed active officers. The agency started using Department (RCSD) serve the aggression toward deputies were Tasers in December 2000. The unincorporated portions of Richland also more likely to suffer injuries. SPD recorded 676 use-of-force County, S.C. The agency started incidents between December 2005 phasing in Tasers in late 2004. In contrast to the Miami-Dade and October 2006. Suspects suf­ During data collection, about 60 and Seattle Police Departments, fered injuries in 64 percent of the percent of deputies carried Tasers. Taser use by the RCSD had no incidents, while officers suffered effect on the likelihood of suspect injuries in 20 percent of the incidents. Researchers coded 467 use-of­ injury. Also in contrast to the Miami- Officers used hands-on tactics in force reports from January 2005 Dade Police Department, Taser use 76 percent of the incidents. The to July 2006. The most frequent by the RCSD had no effect on the next most frequent type of force Police Use of Force:The Impact of Less-Lethal Weapons and Tactics | 5 NIJ JOURNAL / ISSUE NO. 267 What Is Use of Force, and What Is a Use-of-Force Continuum? “ se of force” refers to the encounter with a civilian. “The use­ or the suspect. When police U“amount of effort required of-force continuum” is a phrase to in a democracy use force and by police to compel compliance describe this kind of guide. The con­ injury results, concern about 1 by an unwilling subject.” The tinuum of a particular agency may police abuse arises, lawsuits Fourth Amendment forbids unrea­ cover a full spectrum of actions from often follow and the reputa­ sonable searches and seizures, no-force, in which having officers tion of the police is threatened. and various other legal and policy present is enough to defuse the situ­ Injuries also cost money in med­ controls govern how and when ation or deter crime, to lethal force, ical bills for indigent suspects, officers can use force. Most agen­ in which officers use deadly weap­ workers’ compensation claims cies tightly control the use of ons. For a sample continuum, see for injured officers, or damages force, and supervisors or internal NIJ’s topic page. paid out in legal settlements affairs units routinely review or judgments. serious incidents. ▼ http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/topics/ law-enforcement/officer-safety/ 1. Definition by the International Many law enforcement agencies use-of-force/continuum.htm. Association of Chiefs of Police, instruct officers in, and have Police Use of Force in America, policy guides for officers regard­ When any kind of physical use of 2001, http://www.theiacp.org/ ing, appropriate responses to force is required, there is always Portals/0/pdfs/Publications/ 2001useofforce.pdf. an escalation of activities in an a chance of injury to the officer officers used was the Taser (36 Seattle and Richland County).2 When police in a percent), followed by pepper spray The large sample, representing (8 percent).1 more than 24,000 use-of-force democracy use force incidents, allowed the researchers Taser use was associated with a to use statistical techniques to and injury results, 48 percent decrease in the odds determine which variables were concern about police of suspect injury in a use-of-force likely to affect injury rates. The incident (it was not associated with use of physical force (e.g., hands, abuse arises, lawsuits a significant change in the odds fists, feet) by officers increased the of officer injury). The use of physi­ odds of injury to officers and sus­ often follow and the cal force by officers increased the pects alike. However, pepper spray odds of officer injury 258 percent. and CED use decreased the likeli­ reputation of the police Not surprisingly, the odds of officer hood of suspect injury by 65 and injury also increased when suspects 70 percent, respectively. Officer is threatened. resisted by using physical force or injuries were unaffected by CED when suspects used or threatened use, while the odds of officer injury to use a weapon. increased about 21 percent with pepper spray use. Combined Agency Analysis Longitudinal Analysis The researchers conducted a com­ bined analysis of use-of-force data To see if the introduction of CEDs from 12 large local law enforcement was associated with changes in agencies (including Miami-Dade, injury rates in individual police 6 | Police Use of Force:The Impact of Less-Lethal Weapons and Tactics NIJ JOURNAL / ISSUE NO. 267 departments, the researchers (CPD) and 35 suspects involved suspects (12 percent) were injured. reviewed monthly reports of in use-of-force situations. Unlike Most suspect injuries were cuts or use-of-force incidents and of the RCSD, the CPD does not abrasions, but there were also two officer and suspect injuries from use CEDs. dog bites, and one suspect was shot police departments in Austin, in the arm after firing at officers. Texas, and Orlando, Fla., both In nine incidents (out of 109), officers before and after the introduction in the RCSD reported that a Taser Suspect Perceptions 3 of CEDs.