Notes THE DEVELOPMENT OF RUSSIAN PUBLIC OPINION I. Matthew Wyman, Bill Miller, Stephen White and Paul Heywood, 'The Russian Elections of December 1993', Electoral Studies, 13 (1994 ), p. 263. 2. Quoted in Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, The Spiral of Silence: Public Opinion ~Our Social Skin (Chicago and London: Chicago University Press, 1984), p. 38. 3. For a profound discussion of the nature and causes of opinion inconsistency, see Leo Bogart, Silent Politics: Polls and the Awareness of Public Opinion (NY: John Wiley, 1972), pp. 129~39. 4. Bogart, Silent Politics, pp. 14~20. 5. Bogart, Silent Politics, p. 154. 6. Linda Lubrano, Wesley Fisher, Janet Schwartz and Kate Tomlinson, 'The Soviet Union', in William A. Welsh (ed.), Survev Results and Public Attitudes in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union (NY: Pergamon, 1981 ); a detailed account of official attitudes to such research is Vladimir Shlapentokh, The Politics of Sociology in the Soviet Union (Boulder CO: Westview Press, 1987); the Taganrog research was carried out by Boris Grushin, who subsequently managed to publish some of the results ~ see B. Grushin and L. Onikov (eds), Massovaya informatsiya v sovetskom promyshlennom gorode (Moscow: Politizdat, 1980). 7. The 'classic' 1950s account is Alex lnkeles and Raymond Bauer, The Soviet Citizen: Daily Life in a Totalitarian Society (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1959); for 1970s research see Zvi Y. Gitelman, 'Soviet Political Culture: Insights from Jewish Emigres', Soviet Studies, 29 ( 1977). pp. 543~64; James R. Millar (ed.), Politics, Work and Daily Life in the USSR (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987). 8. Czeslaw Milosz, The Captive Mind (London: Penguin, 1980), p. xiv. 9. For example, T.W. Adorno, E. Frenkel-Brunswick, D. Levinson and R. Sandford, The Authoritarian Personality (NY: Harper and Row, 1950); Zbigniew Brzezinski, The Grand Failure: The Birth and Death of Communism in the Twentieth Century (London: Macdonald, 1989), pp. 1~12. 10. Geoffrey Hosking, The Awakening of the Soviet Union (enlarged edition, Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1991 ), esp. chapters 3 and 4. II. Vladimir Shlapentokh, The Public and Private Lives of Soviet Citizens: Changing Values in Post-Stalin Russia (NY and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989). 12. Pravda, 6 February 1987. 13. See Hedrick Smith, The New Russians (updated edition, London: Vintage, 1991), p. 86. 14. For an example of the state of affairs by the end of 1988 see Yuri Levada (ed.), Est' mnenie! itogi sotsiologicheskogo oprosa (Moscow: Progress, 239 240 Notes 1990); for 1989 see Obshchestvennoe mnenie v tsifrakh, passim; also Yuri Levada et a/. (eds), Sovetskii prostoi chelovek (Moscow: Nauka, 1993). 15. V .G. Britvin, S. V. Kolobanov and E.G. Meshkova, Obshchestvennoe mnenie v usloviyakh perestroiki: problemr formirovaniya i funkstionirovaniya (Moscow: Jnstitut sotsiologii AN SSSR, 1990) in many ways documents the change in the focus of survey research in this institution. 16. Moskovskie novosti, 14 April 1991. 17. See, for example, 'Mnenie o proekte platformy TsK KPSS', Partiinaya zhizn' 7 (1990), p. 26; G. Smirnov, 'Otnoshenie k Leninu (itogi sotsiologicheskogo issledovaniya)', /zvestiya TsK KPSS, 2 (1991 ), pp. 50-I; Politicheskaya sotsiologi\'a informatsionnyi byulleten', passim. 18. Tatyana Zaslavskaya, 'Sotsio1ogicheskii monitoring ekonomicheskikh i sotsial'nykh peremen v Rossii', Ekonomicheskie i sot sial 'nye peremeny: monitoring obshchestvennogo mneniya, I (1993), pp. 3-9 constitutes a statement of the goals of VTs!OM's research. 19. Articles critical of Russian practice would include John P. Willerton and Lee Sigelman, 'Public Opinion Research in the USSR: Opportunities and Pitfalls', Journal of Communist Studies, 7 (1991 ), pp. 217-34; Jeffrey W. Hahn, 'Public Opinion Research in the Soviet Union: Problems and Possibilities', in Arthur H. Miller, William M. Reisinger and Vicki L. Hesli (eds), Public Opinion and Regime Change: The New Politics of Post-Soviet Societies (Boulder CO: Westview Press, 1993), pp. 37-50; Darrell Slider, 'Public Opinion and the Political Process', in Stephen White, Graeme Gill and Darrell Slider (eds), The Politics of Transition: Shaping a Post-Soviet Future (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993) and, from the Russian viewpoint, Vasilii Ovsyannikov, '0 nauchnosti oprosov obshchestvennogo mneniya', Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniya, 9 ( 1991 ), pp. 18-21; Vsevolod Vii' chek, 'Killery s anketoi v rukakh', Moskovskie novosti, 24 November 1993, p. 7. More constructive discus­ sions include Elena I. Bashkirova and Vicki L. Hesli, 'Polling and Perestroika', in Miller eta/. (eds), Public Opinion and Regime Change, pp. 17-37; Michael Swafford, 'Sociological Aspects of Survey Research in the Commonwealth of Independent States', International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 4 (1992), pp. 346-59; Boris Grushin, 'Pochemu nel'zya verit' bol'shinstvu oprosov, provodimykh v byvshem SSSR', Nezavisimaya gazeta, 28 Octo­ ber 1992; Brian D. Silver, 'Evaluating Survey Data from the Former Soviet Union', paper given to conference on 'Survey Research in the Successor States of the USSR', George Washington University, 17-18 September 1992. 20. The offending poll is in Argumenty i fakty, 40 ( 1989). 21. Nezavisimaya gazeta, 28 October 1992, p. 5. 22. Willerton and Sigel man, 'Public Opinion Research', p. 228. 23. Roger J. Stubbs and Peter F. Hutton, 'Yea-saying: Myth or Reality in Attitude Response'>', paper presented to the Market Research Society Annual Conference, 1976, quoted in Robert M. Worcester, British Public Opinion: A Guide to the Histon- and Methodology of Political Opinion Polling (Oxford: Blackwell, 1991 ), p. 138. 24. Noelle-Neumann, The Spiral of Silence, passim. 25. Moskovskie novosti, I 0 June 1990. Notes 241 26. Quoted in Smith, The New Russians, p. 88. 27. Miller et a/. (eds), Public Opinion and Regime Change, p. 280. 28. S.P. Khaikin and E.P. Pavlov, 'Kak pomoch' interv'yueru', Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniya, 4 (1991 ), pp. 58-65. 29. Nezavisimaya gazeta, 28 October 1992. Of course these kinds of prob­ lem are not confined to survey research in Russia. For example, a classic study of the United States comments in its appendices that two of its interviewers were arrested in Alabama. See A. Campbell, P. Converse, W. Miller and D. Stokes, The American Voter (NY: Wiley, 1960). 30. Swafford, 'Sociological Aspects', p. 351. 31. Ibid., p. 355. 32. Quoted in Worcester, British Public Opinion, p. 135. The categories for this section are largely drawn from the same source. 33. 'Zabastovki: prichiny i posledstviya', Obshchestvennoe mnenie v tsifrakh, 5 (1989). 34. See George Gallup, The Sophisticated Poll Watcher's Guide (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1976). 35. Philip Converse, 'The Nature of Belief Systems in Mass Publics', in David E. Apter (ed.), Ideology and Discontent (NY: Free Press, 1964), pp. 206-61. 36. Swafford, 'Sociological Aspects', p. 355. 37. Central and Eastern Eurobarometer, passim. 38. Levada, Est' mnenie!, p. 281. The answers to this particular question are discussed in Chapter 3 below. 39. Ibid., p. 8. 40. Vladimir Rukavishnikov, 'Pik napryazhennosti pod znakom belogo konya', Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniya, I 0 (1990), pp. 12-13. 41. Timothy Heleniak, 'Glasnost and the Publication of Soviet Census Results', Journal of Soviet Nationalities, 2 (1991), pp. 139-60. 42. YTsiOM's weighting procedures are outlined in E.Y. Kozerenko and S.G. Novikov, 'Vyborka monitoringa- aposteriornyi kontrol', Ekonomicheskie i sot sial 'nye peremeny: monitoring obshchestvennogo mneniya, 4 (1993), pp. 8-10. 43. Swafford, 'Sociological Aspects', p. 350. 44. James L. Gibson and Raymond M. Ouch, 'Attitudes Towards Jews and Soviet Political Culture', Journal of Soviet Nationalities, 2 ( 1991 ), pp. 110-11. 45. The data on telephones are from Pravda, 26 September 1985, quoted in Willerton and Sigel man, 'Public Opinion Research', p. 234. 46. See, for example, VTsiOM's Ekonomicheskie i sotsial'nye peremeny: monitoring obshchestvennogo mneniya, I (1993), pp. 9-10. 47. For the polls, see Radio Free Europe I Radio Liberty Research Bulletin, 15 January 1993; Nezavisimaya gazeta, 29 July 1992. 48. A.Y. Dmitriev and Zh.T. Toshenko, 'Sotsiologicheskii opros i politika', Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniya, 5 (1994), pp. 42-51. 49. Wyman et al., 'The Russian Elections', p. 262; Ekonomicheskie i sotsia/'nye peremeny: monitoring obshchestvennogo mneniya, 2 ( 1994), p. 70. 242 Notes 2 THE MOOD OF THE NATION I. Vaclav Havel, 'The Power of the Powerless', in his Living In Truth (London: Faber, 1986), pp. 36-I22. 2. I.E. Ladygina, 'Mnenie naseleniya ob usloviyakh udovletvoreniya potrebnostei', in V.G. Britvin, S.V. Kolobanov and E.G. Meshkova (eds), Obshchestvennoe mnenie v usloviyakh perestroiki: problemy formirovaniya i funktsionirovaniya (Moscow: lnstitut sotsiologii AN SSSR, I990), pp. 81-93. 3. A.!. Grazhdankin and B.Y. Dubin, 'Tsennostie orientatsii Iichnosti i uroven' zhizn'yu', Obshchestvennoe mnenie v tsifrakh, 3 (1990). N = 2696. 4. Radikal, 22 (1992), p. 15. 5. Argumenty i fakty, I 8 (I 992). 6. Alexei Levinson, 'VTslOM sprashivaet: kakaya nastroeniya?', lzvestiya, 27 February 1993, p. 15. 7. Ekonomicheskie i sotsial 'nye peremeny: monitoring obshchestvennogo mneniya, 3 (1994), pp. 39, 45 and 5 (1994), pp. 71, 78, 85. 8. Eurobarometer, 35 (1991), pp. I-I8. 9. Michael EHman, 'The Increase in Death and Disease under Katastroika', Cambridge Journal of Economics, 6, I994, pp. 6I9-34. I 0. Ekonomicheskie i sotsial 'nye peremeny: