Understanding Iconography: A Method to Allow Rich Picture Interpretation to Improve Tessa Berg Submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Heriot Watt University Department of Computer Science Date: May 2013 The copyright in this thesis is owned by the author. Any quotation from the thesis or use of any of the information contained in it must acknowledge this thesis as the source of the quotation or information. ABSTRACT Information Systems for complex situations often fail to adequately deliver quality and suitability. One reason for this failure is an inability to identify comprehensive user requirements. Seldom do all stakeholders, especially those „invisible‟ or „back room‟ system users, have a voice when systems are designed. If this is a global problem then it may impact on both the public and private sectors in terms of their ability to perform, produce and stay competitive. To improve upon this, system designers use rich pictures as a diagrammatic means of identifying differing world views with the aim of creating shared understanding of the organisation. Rich pictures have predominantly been used as freeform, unstructured tools with no commonly agreed syntax. This research has collated, analysed and documented a substantial collection of rich pictures into a single dataset. Attention has been focussed on three main research areas; how the rich picture is facilitated, how the rich picture is constructed and how to interpret the resultant pictures. This research highlights the importance of the rich picture tool and argues the value of adding levels of structure, in certain cases. It is shown that there are considerable benefits for both the interpreter and the creator by providing a pre-drawing session, a common key of symbols and a framework for icon understanding. In conclusion, it is suggested that there is some evidence that a framework which aims to support the process of the rich picture and aid interpretation is valuable. I Acknowledgements I would like to show my gratitude to the Computer Science Department of Heriot-Watt University for awarding me an internal scholarship for the 3 years of this Thesis. Acknowledgement is also given to Professor Rob Pooley for his supervisory input and unwavering support. I would further like to thank my examiners, Professor Steve Morse and Dr Sandy Louchart, for their fair and comprehensive appraisal of my work. This thesis would not have been possible without the guidance, support and patience of a few wonderful people; Professor Simon Bell. I owe my deepest gratitude to Simon for keeping me sane and encouraging me to continue when times were difficult. Professor Greg Michaelson for taking a punt on me many years ago. Arthur, my long suffering husband, to whom I shall always be indebted to. Thank you for letting me talk „systems and icons‟ at you for evening upon evening without complaint. My Mother and Father for their continuous support. Jenny, Diana, Caroline and Gordon for being my friends. And finally my sons; Joe, Charlie and Oscar. You have turned out to be rather amazing boys despite being somewhat motherless for a period of time. II ACADEMIC REGISTRY Research Thesis Submission Name: Tessa Berg School/PGI: School of Mathematical and Computer Science Version: (i.e. First, Final Degree Sought PhD Resubmission, Final) (Award and Subject area) Declaration In accordance with the appropriate regulations I hereby submit my thesis and I declare that: 1) the thesis embodies the results of my own work and has been composed by myself 2) where appropriate, I have made acknowledgement of the work of others and have made reference to work carried out in collaboration with other persons 3) the thesis is the correct version of the thesis for submission and is the same version as any electronic versions submitted*. 4) my thesis for the award referred to, deposited in the Heriot-Watt University Library, should be made available for loan or photocopying and be available via the Institutional Repository, subject to such conditions as the Librarian may require 5) I understand that as a student of the University I am required to abide by the Regulations of the University and to conform to its discipline. * Please note that it is the responsibility of the candidate to ensure that the correct version of the thesis is submitted. Signature of Date: Candidate: Submission Submitted By (name in capitals): Tessa Berg Signature of Individual Submitting: Date Submitted: For Completion in the Student Service Centre (SSC) Received in the SSC by (name in capitals): Method of Submission (Handed in to SSC; posted through internal/external mail): E-thesis Submitted Signature: Date: III Acronyms and Abbreviations AR Action Research AS: Appreciative System CA: Content Analysis CATWOE: Customers, Actors, Transformation, Weltanschauung, Owners &Environment DA: Discourse Analysis GT: Grounded Theory GUI: Graphical User Interface HCI Human Computer Interaction IPA: Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis KM: Knowledge Management PSM: Problem Structuring Method PT: Pivot Table RA Research Area RD: Root definition RP: Rich Picture SAGA: Subjective Assessment of Group Analysis SSM: Soft System Methodology SQL: Structured Query Language TT: Triple Task IV Table of Contents Chapter 1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 1-1 1.1 Statement of Aims and Objectives .......................................................................... 1-2 1.2 Objectives ................................................................................................................ 1-3 1.3 Research Background .............................................................................................. 1-4 1.4 Problem Identification ............................................................................................. 1-9 1.5 Exploration of Research work ............................................................................... 1-10 1.5.1 Authors Contribution and Positionality ......................................................... 1-13 1.5.2 Structured Typology of Queries relating to 3 core themes ............................ 1-14 1.6 Structure of Thesis ................................................................................................ 1-16 Chapter 2 Literature Review: Background Related work .............................................. 2-17 2.1 Motivation behind this Literature Review ............................................................ 2-17 2.2 Introduction to System Thinking .......................................................................... 2-19 2.2.1 Purposeful Systems ........................................................................................ 2-21 2.3 Soft System Methodology ..................................................................................... 2-24 2.4 Knowledge Management....................................................................................... 2-27 2.4.1 Elicitation Techniques ................................................................................... 2-29 2.4.2 Interviewing ................................................................................................... 2-30 2.4.3 Card Sorting ................................................................................................... 2-30 2.4.4 Contextual Enquiry ........................................................................................ 2-30 2.4.5 Affinity Diagramming ................................................................................... 2-31 2.4.6 SODA ............................................................................................................. 2-31 2.4.7 Drama Theory ................................................................................................ 2-32 2.5 Comparative Analysis of Knowledge Elicitation Techniques .............................. 2-33 2.5.1 Techniques used in problem solving compared with RPs ............................. 2-38 2.6 Symbols, Signs and Icons ..................................................................................... 2-39 2.6.1 Human Symbols and Icons ............................................................................ 2-43 2.6.2 Ancient folklore images ................................................................................. 2-46 2.7 The Rich Picture .................................................................................................... 2-53 2.7.1 Problems with the Rich Picture Tool ............................................................. 2-58 2.7.2 Group Work and the Rich Picture .................................................................. 2-64 2.8 Synopsis of Literature Review .............................................................................. 2-70 Chapter 3 Literature Review: Interpreting Icons ............................................................ 3-72 3.1 Analysing RPs using Art Interpretation Methods. ................................................ 3-73 3.2 Context and Artefacts ............................................................................................ 3-79 3.2.1 Icons ............................................................................................................... 3-79 3.2.2 Traditional icons ............................................................................................ 3-85 V 3.2.3 Cultural icons ................................................................................................