brain sciences Recent Changes in Drug Abuse Scenario The Novel Psychoactive Substances (NPS) Phenomenon Edited by Fabrizio Schifano Printed Edition of the Special Issue Published in Brain Sciences www.mdpi.com/journal/brainsci Recent Changes in Drug Abuse Scenario Recent Changes in Drug Abuse Scenario The Novel Psychoactive Substances (NPS) Phenomenon Special Issue Editor Fabrizio Schifano MDPI • Basel • Beijing • Wuhan • Barcelona • Belgrade Special Issue Editor Fabrizio Schifano University of Hertfordshire UK Editorial Office MDPI St. Alban-Anlage 66 4052 Basel, Switzerland This is a reprint of articles from the Special Issue published online in the open access journal Brain Sciences (ISSN 2076-3425) in 2018 (available at: https://www.mdpi.com/journal/brainsci/ special issues/drug abuse scenario) For citation purposes, cite each article independently as indicated on the article page online and as indicated below: LastName, A.A.; LastName, B.B.; LastName, C.C. Article Title. Journal Name Year, Article Number, Page Range. ISBN 978-3-03897-507-6 (Pbk) ISBN 978-3-03897-508-3 (PDF) c 2019 by the authors. Articles in this book are Open Access and distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license, which allows users to download, copy and build upon published articles, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications. The book as a whole is distributed by MDPI under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons license CC BY-NC-ND. Contents About the Special Issue Editor ...................................... vii Fabrizio Schifano Recent Changes in Drug Abuse Scenarios: The New/Novel Psychoactive Substances (NPS) Phenomenon Reprinted from: Brain Sci. 2018, 8, 221, doi:10.3390/brainsci8120221 ................. 1 Valeria Catalani, Mariya Prilutskaya, Ahmed Al-Imam, Shanna Marrinan, Yasmine Elgharably, Mire Zloh, Giovanni Martinotti, Robert Chilcott and Ornella Corazza Octodrine: New Questions and Challenges in Sport Supplements Reprinted from: Brain Sci. 2018, 8, 34, doi:10.3390/brainsci8020034 .................. 4 Koby Cohen and Aviv Weinstein The Effects of Cannabinoids on Executive Functions: Evidence from Cannabis and Synthetic Cannabinoids—A Systematic Review Reprinted from: Brain Sci. 2018, 8, 40, doi:10.3390/brainsci8030040 .................. 17 Andrew C. Parrott Mood Fluctuation and Psychobiological Instability: The Same Core Functions Are Disrupted by Novel Psychoactive Substances and Established Recreational Drugs Reprinted from: Brain Sci. 2018, 8, 43, doi:10.3390/brainsci8030043 .................. 36 Elle Wadsworth, Colin Drummond and Paolo Deluca The Dynamic Environment of Crypto Markets: The Lifespan of New Psychoactive Substances (NPS) and Vendors Selling NPS Reprinted from: Brain Sci. 2018, 8, 46, doi:10.3390/brainsci8030046 .................. 47 Giovanni Martinotti, Rita Santacroce, Mauro Pettorruso, Chiara Montemitro, Maria Chiara Spano, Marco Lorusso, Massimo di Giannantonio and Arturo G. Lerner Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder: Etiology, Clinical Features, and Therapeutic Perspectives Reprinted from: Brain Sci. 2018, 8, 47, doi:10.3390/brainsci8030047 .................. 56 Rosalind Gittins, Amira Guirguis, Fabrizio Schifano and Ian Maidment Exploration of the Use of New Psychoactive Substances by Individuals in Treatment for Substance Misuse in the UK Reprinted from: Brain Sci. 2018, 8, 58, doi:10.3390/brainsci8040058 .................. 74 Michelle A. Sahai, Colin Davidson, Neelakshi Dutta and Jolanta Opacka-Juffry Mechanistic Insights into the Stimulant Properties of Novel Psychoactive Substances (NPS) and Their Discrimination by the Dopamine Transporter—In Silico and In Vitro Exploration of Dissociative Diarylethylamines Reprinted from: Brain Sci. 2018, 8, 63, doi:10.3390/brainsci8040063 .................. 94 Fabrizio Schifano, Stefania Chiappini, John M. Corkery and Amira Guirguis Abuse of Prescription Drugs in the Context of Novel Psychoactive Substances (NPS): A Systematic Review Reprinted from: Brain Sci. 2018, 8, 73, doi:10.3390/brainsci8040073 ..................113 v Antonio Metastasio, Attilio Negri, Giovanni Martinotti and Ornella Corazza Transitioning Bodies. The Case of Self-Prescribing Sexual Hormones in Gender Affirmation in Individuals Attending Psychiatric Services Reprinted from: Brain Sci. 2018, 8, 88, doi:10.3390/brainsci8050088 ..................130 Giorgia Miolo, Marianna Tucci, Luca Menilli, Giulia Stocchero, Susanna Vogliardi, Salvatore Scrivano, Massimo Montisci and Donata Favretto A Study on Photostability of Amphetamines and Ketamine in Hair Irradiated under Artificial Sunlight Reprinted from: Brain Sci. 2018, 8, 96, doi:10.3390/brainsci8060096 ..................140 Cristina Miliano, Giulia Margiani, Liana Fattore and Maria Antonietta De Luca Sales and Advertising Channels of New Psychoactive Substances (NPS): Internet, Social Networks, and Smartphone Apps Reprinted from: Brain Sci. 2018, 8, 123, doi:10.3390/brainsci8070123 .................152 Stefania Bonaccorso, Antonio Metastasio, Angelo Ricciardi, Neil Stewart, Leila Jamal, Naasir-Ud-Dinn Rujully, Christos Theleritis, Stefano Ferracuti, Giuseppe Ducci and Fabrizio Schifano Synthetic Cannabinoid use in a Case Series of Patients with Psychosis Presenting to Acute Psychiatric Settings: Clinical Presentation and Management Issues Reprinted from: Brain Sci. 2018, 8, 133, doi:10.3390/brainsci8070133 .................161 Paolo Frisoni, Erica Bacchio, Sabrine Bilel, Anna Talarico, Rosa Maria Gaudio, Mario Barbieri, Margherita Neri and Matteo Marti Novel Synthetic Opioids: The Pathologist’s Point of View Reprinted from: Brain Sci. 2018, 8, 170, doi:10.3390/brainsci8090170 .................171 vi About the Special Issue Editor Fabrizio Schifano (Prof.) is one of the few physicians in Europe with training and specialist qualifications in both psychiatry and clinical pharmacology. He has made an outstanding contribution to several areas, including the epidemiological, psychopathological and overdose issues relating to the misuse of new/novel psychoactive substances/NPS, the Internet and drugs. Professor Schifano has been the Principal Investigator of six consecutive EU Commission-funded, multi-centre (i.e., 12 EU countries), NPS-based research programmes since 2002. vii brain sciences Editorial Recent Changes in Drug Abuse Scenarios: The New/Novel Psychoactive Substances (NPS) Phenomenon Fabrizio Schifano Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, University of Hertfordshire, Hertfordshire AL10 9AB, UK; [email protected] Received: 7 December 2018; Accepted: 9 December 2018; Published: 13 December 2018 Over the last decade, the emergence of a vast range of new/novel/emerging psychoactive substances (NPS) has progressively changed drug market scenarios, which have shifted from the ‘street’ to a ‘virtual’/online environment. Several definitions of NPS are in use, with the term ‘new’ not necessarily referring to new inventions but to substances that have recently been made available, possibly including failed pharmaceuticals or old patents which have been ‘rediscovered’ as ‘recreational’ molecules. Conversely, the term ‘novel’ can refer to something newly created, an old drug that has come back into fashion, or a known NPS molecule being used in an innovative or unusual way and hence presenting a ‘novelty’ appeal (Corkery et al., 2018) [1]. Though misleading, the terms ‘legal highs’ and ‘research chemicals’ have been used alternately to describe these molecules. NPS includes synthetic cannabinoids, cathinone derivatives, psychedelic phenethylamines, novel stimulants, synthetic opioids, tryptamine derivatives, phencyclidine-like dissociatives, piperazines, GABA-A/B receptor agonists, a range of prescribed medications, psychoactive plants/herbs, and a large series of image- and performance-enhancing drugs (IPED) (Schifano et al., 2015) [2]. Overall, users are typically attracted to NPS because of curiosity and the diffusion of social media users’ experiences, easy availability or affordability from online drug shops, legality, intense psychoactive effects, and the likely lack of detection in routine drug screenings (Schifano et al., 2015) [2]. Between 2004 and 2017, some 700–800 examples of NPS were reported by related European and international drug agencies (UNODC, 2018 [3]; EMCDDA, 2018 [4]), with most molecules identified being synthetic cannabinoids, synthetic cathinones, phenethylamine derivatives, and synthetic opioids. However, it could be argued that the NPS scenario is much larger than that outlined by those molecules which have been seized or formally identified by EU and international agencies. Since the online NPS scenario typically predicts the real life NPS scenario (Schifano et al., 2015) [2], identifying what is being discussed online by web-based NPS enthusiasts, or ‘e-psychonauts’ (Orsolini et al., 2015) [5], may well be of interest. With this in mind, a crawling/navigating software (i.e., the ‘NPS.Finder®’) was recently designed by our group. In November 2017, it started to automatically scan, on a 24/7 basis, a vast range of psychonaut web forums for NPS. After a year of operation, it has been possible to estimate that the online/psychonaut web forum NPS scene may include some 4000 different molecules. The most popular examples of NPS mentioned in psychonaut forums have included synthetic cannabimimetics, synthetic opioids, phenethylamines, designer benzodiazepines, and prescribed