Exploring farmers’perceptions of drought in Tanzania and Ethiopia Monique F.W. Slegers Promotor: Prof. Dr. Ir. L. Stroosnijder Hoogleraar Erosie en Bodem & Waterconservering Copromotor: Dr. Ir. J. de Graaff Universitair hoofddocent bij de leerstoelgroep Erosie en Bodem & Waterconservering Promotiecommissie: Prof. Dr. Ir. H. van Keulen Wageningen Universiteit Prof. Dr. Ir. E. M. A. Smaling ITC Enschede Prof. Dr. Ir. J. W. M. van Dijk Wageningen Universiteit Dr. A. Dahlberg University of Stockholm Dit onderzoek is uitgevoerd binnen de onderzoeksschool Production Ecology and Resource Conservation (PE&RC) Exploring farmers’ perceptions of drought in Tanzania and Ethiopia Monique F.W. Slegers Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor op gezag van de rector magnificus van Wageningen Universiteit, Prof. Dr. M. J. Kropff, in het openbaar te verdedigen op vrijdag 7 november 2008 des namiddags te vier uur in de Aula Slegers, M.F.W., 2008 Exploring farmers’ perceptions of drought in Tanzania and Ethiopia Doctoral Thesis Wageningen University – with ref. – with summary in English and Dutch ISBN: 978-90-8585-240-7 Key words: perception, drought, agricultural drought, land degradation, livelihood strategies, environmental change, East Africa, Tanzania, Ethiopia …For my parents and my sister… Acknowledgements Here I am, writing the final words of my thesis. I have thought a lot about this moment, already while I was working on the proposal for this research back in 2003, wondering how it would feel like to be at the verge of finalizing a PhD thesis. I had written several PhD proposals that year but it was anything but certain whether I would get financial support for any of these. The day of Christmas Eve 2003, Professor Leo Stroosnijder phoned me to inform me that I would be employed by Wageningen University to ‘do the job’. Four years seemed like a very long time and for the first few months it felt as if I was swimming in the middle of an ocean without any land in sight, not really knowing in which direction to swim. The research really took shape during the first round of fieldwork. Time passed by fast and the last few months before the deadline I had to run to catch up with time. Four years appeared to be rather short. I would like to thank my promoter Leo Stroosnijder for giving me this opportunity. Thank you for your enthusiasm and support, which was an encouragement for me ever since my first inquiries about the options for a PhD study at the Erosion and Soil & Water Conservation Group. You always kept overview of the whole, when I was getting lost in details, or even worse, in the biophysical data. My co-promoter Jan de Graaff, I thank you for your supervision, giving me advice and feedback instantly whenever I had a question. You guided me through the PC and cluster analyses, always paying attention to the details. I enjoyed the wines, dinners and beers with Jan & Françoise, Leo & Jacquelijn and other guests, during which we shared many anecdotes about life abroad. In 2005, I met Gerrit Holtland at an IAC seminar. He sat down next to me and we started talking about our work. He happened to be familiar with my study area in Tanzania. Thank you for putting me into contact with Wilhelm Östberg, who had done a field study in the same area. Late in 2005 I met with Wilhelm in Tanzania and we shared some time together in Goima. There the idea arose to work together on a publication. January 2008, I went to Stockholm to start up this work. Wille, thank you very much for your input, cooperation and the long hours you have spend working on the manuscript. Your expressive writings are inspiring to me. I would like to thank you and Lotta for your hospitality and for the enjoyable evenings at your house. I am very grateful to Bert Janssen who has contributed greatly to this thesis by helping me through the most frustrating part of this thesis: analyzing biophysical data and interpreting the results. You held a critical view and especially on some issues regarding drought we did not always agree, however, I believe that we managed well to bring the work to a good end. I enjoyed working at the Erosion and Soil & Water Conservation Group, where I met with people from many different countries. During the first period of my PhD study, which lasted for two-and-a-half years, I was out on fieldwork more often than I was at the Nieuwlanden. I enjoyed the coffee breaks, the lunches, the occasional walks with Terra and the games of frisbee. Soon after I returned from my final fieldwork period, we moved to the new Atlas building. Many things changed but we upheld the coffee break with cookies (many cookies and not only during coffee break…), which kept me going during the final months of thesis writing. Of course not only the biscuits but also, and most importantly, the encouraging words from my colleagues, all ‘hands-on’ experts helped me a lot. I want to thank my (former) colleagues for their company and helpfulness: Dirk, Geert, Saskia V, Michel, Wim, Aad, Coen, Saskia K, Marnella, Cathelijne, Jantiene, Lieke, Luuk, Anton, Jakolien, Ferko, Helena, Olga, Rina and Jolanda. Saskia, thank you for helping me out when I was struggling with my maps. I will miss our talks and laughs. Please guard the droppot well! A special thanks for Piet who showed me how to use the equipment in the field and who helped me with the shipment of the equipment. There have been so many foreign PhD students, all of you I want to thank for your good company and from all I learned from you. I want to thank Robert Zougmoré for your cooperation in the study on drought perceptions in Burkina Faso. Albino Tenge, Thanks for your hospitality. During the time I spend in the field, I met a great number of people who taught me new things and who gave me a good feeling about their country. In Ethiopia, first of all I would like to thank the staff at the Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Centre, especially of the Soils Department, for their hospitality and their help. I thank Dr. Selamyihun Kidanu and Dr. Teklu Erkossa for facilitating work and for your advice. I owe much gratitude to Dr. Woldeamlak Bewket, Dr. Aklilu Amsalu and Dr. Bezuayehu Tefera for your assistance. Zenebe Adimassu, I thank you for showing me around in Beressa watershed. My field assistants Hailemariam Birke, Guenet Zenabu and Sintayehu Gebre, thank you very much for your committed and hard work. Enumerators Nigussu Bekele and Abebe Mengeste, thank you so much for helping me out, you did a great job! I am grateful to the staff at the Rural Development Office in Debre Sina, the extension workers in Asfachew Kebele and, most of all, the farmers in Asfachew and Chira Meda for your time and information. Special thanks for my dear friends Getnet, Sintayehu, Teshome, Marta, Anteneh and Ketema, you taught me a lot about life in Ethiopia. You made my time in Ethiopia more enjoyable and were there to help me when things went in the wrong direction. Betam ameseginalew! In Tanzania, first of all I would like to thank the staff at the BACAS office and the Department of Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness of Sokoine University of Agriculture for their hospitality and assistance. I owe much gratitude to Dr. Joseph Hella for your advice, for facilitating my stay in Tanzania, for putting me into contact with people who were important for my research and for organizing the multi-stakeholder seminar with me. Joseph and Veronica, I thank you and your relatives in Dar es Salaam for taking such good care of me and for my family and friend when they came to visit me in Tanzania. I would like to thank professor Mlambiti who joined me and Leo to Goima and Mirambu and where we spent long days in the field. Professor Matovelo, professor Mahoo and Dr. Salim, thank you for your contribution to my work. I thank Nassir Mbiki and Antujael Choka for your good company and assistance searching for a motorbike and getting my driver’s license. My field assistants Josephine Joseph and Athanas Joseph thank you very much for your commitment and persistence. I thank you and Happy Chuma for your helping hand at the multi-stakeholder seminar. My acknowledgements go to all participants of the seminar. Thank you Anna Badman for verifying some Burunge spelling. I am grateful to the staff at the Kondoa District Council, especially Mr. Malonga, Mr. Nyange and Ms. Mrawa. You helped me a great deal with identifying appropriate research villages, holding a survey and organizing transport. I thank the Ward executive, village and sub-village chairmen for your cooperation. I am grateful to Mr Chorray and Mr Mchana as you were always willing to answer my questions. I lived in Goima for many months, which was possible because of the great hospitality of father Mponde and the sisters at Goima Mission. I am very grateful to you and Preska and to the girls and boys who work at the mission for all that you have done for me. You all have made me feel very welcome. Even though the language barrier sometimes made communication difficult, you taught me many things. I have deep respect for the way you live and take care of your guests. Most importantly, I thank the farmers in Goima and Mirambu villages for your patience, your stories and your questions to me.