Expressions of Islamic Feminisms in Algeria and Saudi Arabia: Towards Intersectional and Feminist-postcolonial Approach A thesis submitted to The University of Manchester for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Humanities 2018 Afaf M. H. Al-Humaidi School of Arts, Languages and Cultures TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................................... 5 DECLARATION ................................................................................................................................. 7 COPYRIGHT STATEMENT .............................................................................................................. 7 TRANSILERERATION ...................................................................................................................... 8 DEDICATION ..................................................................................................................................... 9 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................................. 10 CHAPTER 1 ...................................................................................................................................... 11 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 11 BACKGROUND ............................................................................................................................... 14 Feminist Theory and Practice: Doing Feminist Research .................................................................. 14 Intersectionality .................................................................................................................................. 17 Religion in Intersectionality ............................................................................................................... 20 Arab Feminisms: A Reevaluation ...................................................................................................... 25 ISLAMIC FEMINISM: TRENDS IN ITS THEORIZATION .......................................................... 40 When and Where is the Beginning? ................................................................................................... 40 What is Islamic Feminism? ................................................................................................................ 42 (i)slamic Feminism. ........................................................................................................................... 44 Looking for Indigenous Origins: Islamic Feminism and Legitimate Authority. ............................... 49 AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL CRITICISM .............................................................................................. 52 Women’s Autobiographical Studies .................................................................................................. 52 Arab Autobiographical Discourse ...................................................................................................... 55 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ..................................................................................................... 58 Methodology ...................................................................................................................................... 63 Thesis Overview................................................................................................................................. 64 CHAPTER 2: READING ZUHUR WANISI AS AN ISLAMIC FEMINIST: INTERSECTIONAL ANALYSIS OF HER TEXTS AND CONTEXT; A LIFE BETWEEN TWO JIHADS, TWO REVOLUTIONS AND TWO WARS ............................................................................................... 66 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 66 ISLAMIC FEMINISM IN ALGERIA ............................................................................................... 67 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND: RELIGION, GENDER, AND POLITICS IN ALGERIA FROM COLONIALISM TO INDEPENDENCE .......................................................................................... 78 Intersections and Axes of Power in Algerian History ........................................................................ 79 Colonial Period (1830-1962).............................................................................................................. 81 Revolutionary Period (1954-1962) .................................................................................................... 85 Post-Independence Period (1962-present) ......................................................................................... 89 The Islamic ‘Awakening’ and the Rise of Islamism .......................................................................... 91 2 The State Challenge to Islamism and Plunge into Civil War: The Black Decade ............................. 94 Algeria Today: New Roles for Religion and Women in Politics ....................................................... 95 ZUHUR WANISI AS AN ISLAMIC FEMINIST: A CASE STUDY .............................................. 96 Zuhur Wanisi’s Life and Writings: A Biographical Overview .......................................................... 98 Evidence and Analysis: Wanisi’s Islamic Feminism ....................................................................... 101 Women’s Issues ............................................................................................................................... 102 Wanisi as a Political Figure ............................................................................................................. 106 Wanisi as an Educator ...................................................................................................................... 111 Wanisi’s Intersectional Islamic Feminism ....................................................................................... 113 CHAPTER 3: SAUDI ARABIA’S ISLAMIC FEMINISM: THE CAMPAIGNS AND E- ACTIVISM OF MANAL AL-SHARIF ........................................................................................... 115 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 115 BACKGROUND: A BRIEF HISTORY OF SAUDI ARABIA: RELIGION, GENDER, AND POLITICS WITHIN THE KINGDOM ........................................................................................... 116 Wahhabism: What is it? ................................................................................................................... 117 Saudi State Formation (1902-1932) ................................................................................................. 118 Early Years (1932-1970): The Discovery of Oil.............................................................................. 120 Nationalism, Saudi Culture, and Cultural Diversity ........................................................................ 123 The Modern Saudi State (1970-present): Tensions of Modernisation and Extremism .................... 127 Contemporary Economic Reforms ................................................................................................... 130 Women’s Educational Reforms ....................................................................................................... 131 The Role of Women in Saudi Society: Diversity and Change ......................................................... 132 ISLAMIC FEMINISMS IN SAUDI ARABIA ................................................................................ 134 The Politics of Authenticity: Diversity and Division within Saudi Feminisms ............................... 134 Social Media and Politics ................................................................................................................. 137 Women and Social Media ................................................................................................................ 137 MANAL AL-SHARIF: DEFINING FEMININITY AND WOMANHOOD IN CYBER-SPACE 146 Forming an Islamic Feminist Standpoint: Belief, Consciousness, and Action ................................ 148 Developing a Feminist Consciousness ............................................................................................. 162 Pulling Back the Curtain: How Bans Based on Saudi Custom Operate in Practice ........................ 168 Political Dissidence and Exile as a Standpoint ................................................................................ 170 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................ 176 CHAPTER 4: POLITICS OF REPRESENTATION, LANGUAGE, LOVE AND LOCATIONS: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE CASE STUDIES UTILISING A POSTCOLONIAL FEMINIST FRAMEWORK ............................................................................................................ 178 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 178 THE QUESTION OF REPRESENTATION ................................................................................... 182 Who is Speaking? ............................................................................................................................. 183 Who is Hearing