Hope and goal outcomes: The role of goal-setting behaviors Thesis Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Sara Anne Moss, B.A. Graduate Program in Psychology The Ohio State University 2018 Thesis Committee Dr. Jennifer S. Cheavens, Advisor Dr. Kentaro Fujita Dr. Daniel R. Strunk 1 Copyrighted by Sara Anne Moss 2018 2 Abstract Hope Theory (Snyder, 1994; 2002) is a framework through which goal pursuit has been studied over the past two decades. According to Snyder (2002), individuals with higher levels of hope, as compared to their lower hope peers, set goals that are higher quality and are better able to generate routes to achieve their goals, predict and overcome obstacles, and effectively harness mental energy during goal pursuit. Hope Theory posits that these goal setting behaviors act as the mechanisms through which hope and goal attainment are related (Snyder, 1994; 2002). Empirical research supports the relation between hope and goal setting behaviors (Cheavens, Heiy, Feldman, & Rand, under review; Snyder et al., 1991) as well as the link between hope and goal outcome (e.g., Feldman, Rand, & Wrobleski, 2009; Guter & Cheavens, 2016). Furthermore, Goal Setting Theory research links related goal properties (e.g., difficulty, specificity, importance) to goal attainment (Locke & Latham, 2006). However, the complete model in which the relation between hope and goal outcome is mediated by goal setting behaviors has not yet been tested. In this study, we sought to address this gap using a longitudinal design of goal setting and pursuit among a sample of college students (Study 1: N = 121; Study 2: N = 139). As predicted, hope significantly predicted goal outcome. However, while there were positive, small-to-medium sized associations between hope and self-reported goal commitment, confidence, and perceived effectiveness of planned pathways, hope was not significantly related to coder-rated (i.e., “objective”) goal setting. ii Furthermore, only self-reported goal commitment and confidence, not objective ratings of goal setting, significantly mediated of the relation between hope and goal outcome. Using exploratory analyses, we found that hope moderated the relation between goal quality and 2-month goal outcomes such that at lower levels of hope, individuals who set higher quality goals achieved their goals at rates indistinguishable from higher-hope individuals, while at higher levels of hope, goal achievement was not related to goal quality. If replicated, these findings suggest that the mechanisms of successful goal pursuit may differ at lower and higher levels of hope and that goal setting interventions focused on setting high quality goals and pathways may be of particular benefit to lower-hope individuals. In addition to providing information about the relations between hope, goal setting, and goal outcome, the results illuminate methodological considerations for future research. iii Dedication In memory of Abby Shapiro, whose tenacious goal striving inspires me every day. iv Acknowledgments First, I owe an enormous thank you to my advisor and mentor, Dr. Jennifer S. Cheavens. You provide me with the structure and support to grow as a researcher and professional, and I have benefited tremendously from your wisdom, insight, and perspective throughout this process. I would also like to thank my committee members, Dr. Daniel R. Strunk and Dr. Kentaro Fujita, for their time in providing thoughtful, comprehensive, and useful feedback to strengthen this project. I could not have completed this study without the help of my research assistants, Whitney Allen, Megan Crevar, Joling Hsing, Rabia Khan, Taylor Thomas, Andrea Thompson, and Rachel Williams who spent countless hours training and coding goals. Finally, I would also like to thank my colleagues in the Mood and Personality Studies lab, Erin Altenberger, David Cregg, Kristen Howard, Matt Southward, and Anne Wilson for their encouragement and support. v Vita 2004 – 2008 ...................................................Walter Johnson High School, Bethesda, MD 2010 – 2014....................................................Dickinson College, Carlisle, PA B.A., Summa Cum Laude, Psychology with Honors 2015 – Present ................................................ The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH Graduate Teaching Associate, Department of Psychology Publications Cardi, V., Ambwani, S., Crosby, R., Macdonald, P., Todd, G., Park, S., Moss, S. A., Schmidt, U., & Treasure, J. (2015). Self Help Aid and Recovery guide for Eating Disorders (SHARED): Theoretical rationale and protocol for a randomised controlled trial examining the effect of the Recovery MANTRA intervention for Anorexia Nervosa. Trials. Ambwani, S., Thomas, K. T., Hopwood, C. J., Moss, S. A., & Grilo, C. M. (2014). Obesity stigmatization as the status quo: Assessment and prevalence among young adults in the U.S. Eating Behaviors: 15, 366-370. Fields of Study Major Field: Psychology vi Table of Contents Abstract .............................................................................................................................. ii Dedication .......................................................................................................................... iv Acknowledgments................................................................................................................v Vita ..................................................................................................................................... vi List of Tables ................................................................................................................... viii List of Figures .................................................................................................................... ix Chapter 1: Introduction ........................................................................................................1 Chapter 2: Study 1 Method ................................................................................................16 Chapter 3: Study 1 Results ................................................................................................19 Chapter 4: Study 2 Method ................................................................................................21 Chapter 5: Study 2 Results ................................................................................................25 Chapter 6: Discussion ........................................................................................................35 References ..........................................................................................................................50 Appendix A: Tables ...........................................................................................................59 Appendix B: Figures ..........................................................................................................71 Appendix C: Goal Reporting Activities .............................................................................82 vii List of Tables Table 1. Operationalization and descriptive statistics of coder-rated goal descriptors......60 Table 2. Study 1: Average 2-month goal descriptor ratings ..............................................61 Table 3. Component loadings and communalities for Principal Component Analysis with oblimin rotation of goal descriptors ...................................................................................62 Table 4. Goal domains and examples ................................................................................63 Table 5. Hypothesis 1a: 2-week goal-setting variables at baseline: Descriptive statistics and correlations .................................................................................................................64 Table 6. Hypothesis 1a: 2-month goal-setting variables at baseline: Descriptive statistics and correlations ..................................................................................................................65 Table 7. Hypothesis 1b: Hope Scale scores predicting 2-month goal progress and commitment, confidence, and perceived difficulty at T2 ..................................................66 Table 8. Hypothesis 2a: 2-week goal setting variables predicting goal outcomes ............67 Table 9. Hypothesis 2b(i): 2-month goal setting variables predicting goal outcomes.......68 Table 10. Hypothesis 2b(ii): 2-month goal setting variables predicting goal outcomes ...69 Table 11. Hypothesis 3a, 3b: Hope Scale scores predicting follow-up goal setting variables .............................................................................................................................70 viii List of Figures Figure 1. The Hope Model ................................................................................................72 Figure 2. Empirical support for Hope Theory from Hope and GST research. ..................73 Figure 3. Mediating role of goal perceptions (self-reported) in explaining the relation between baseline Hope Scores and 2-week goal outcomes ...............................................74 Figure 4. Mediating role of pathway perceptions (self-reported) in explaining the relation between baseline Hope Scores and 2-week goal outcomes ...............................................75 Figure 5. Mediating role of goal properties (other-rated) in explaining the relation between baseline Hope