Dr ugs and Crime Prevention Committee Prevention ugs and Crime Drugs and Crime Prevention Committee Inquiry into Amphetamines and ‘Party Drug’ Use in Victoria Discussion Paper I nquiry into the Issue of Amphetamine & ‘Party Drug’ Use in Victoria in Use Drug’ Amphetamine & ‘Party nquiry of into the Issue Images courtesy of Kate Hiller from her video ‘Rave Culture’ – 2002. Amphetamines 5/9/03 5:25 PM Page i M E I A N L T R O A F P V I I A C T O R PARLIAMENT OF VICTORIA DRUGS AND CRIME PREVENTION COMMITTEE INQUIRY INTO AMPHETAMINE AND ‘PARTY DRUG’ USE IN VICTORIA September 2003 Amphetamines 5/9/03 5:54 PM Page ii SUBMISSIONS ARE INVITED The Committee welcomes written submissions in response to the issues raised in this Discussion Paper or on any matter related to the Terms of Reference of the Inquiry. To assist interested parties in making submissions a number of questions have been posed throughout the Discussion Paper. Details of how to make a Submission are included in the Insert. The Committee requires all submissions to be signed hard copy originals but would also appreciate an electronic copy. Submissions should be sent by Monday 13 October 2003 to: Inquiry into Amphetamine and ‘Party Drug’ Use in Victoria The Drugs and Crime Prevention Committee Level 8, 35 Spring Street, Melbourne Victoria 3000 Telephone: (03) 9651 3541 Facsimile: (03) 9651 3603 Email: [email protected] The Committee records its appreciation to Kate Hiller for permission to use images from her video Rave Culture 2002 in the artwork of this Discussion Paper. ISBN: 0-646-42732-6 Drugs and Crime Prevention Committee Level 8, 35 Spring Street Melbourne Victoria 3000 Phone: (03) 9651 3546 Fax: (03) 9651 3603 Email: [email protected] Website: http://www.parliament.vic.gov.au/dcpc page ii Amphetamines 5/9/03 5:25 PM Page iii Drugs and Crime Prevention Committee Members Ms Carolyn Hirsh, M.L.C., Silvan Province – Chair The Hon. Robin Cooper, M.L.A., Mornington – Deputy Chairman Ms Kirstie Marshall, M.L.A., Forest Hill Mr. Ian Maxfield, M.L.A., Narracan Dr. Bill Sykes, M.L.A., Benalla The Hon. Sang Minh Nguyen, M.L.C., Melbourne West Province Mr. Kim Wells, M.L.A., Scoresby Committee Staff Ms Sandy Cook, Executive Officer Mr Peter Johnston, Senior Legal Research Officer Ms Michelle Summerhill, Office Manager page iii Amphetamines 5/9/03 5:25 PM Page iv Functions of the Drugs and Crime Prevention Committee The Victorian Drugs and Crime Prevention Committee is constituted under the Parliamentary Committees Act 1968, as amended. Parliamentary Committees Act 1968 Section 4 EF. To inquire into, consider and report to the Parliament on any proposal, matter or thing concerned with the illicit use of drugs (including the manufacture, supply or distribution of drugs for such use) or the level or causes of crime or violent behaviour, if the Committee is required or permitted so to do by or under this Act. Terms of Reference 15 April 2003 The Governor in Council, under section 4F of the Parliamentary Committees Act 1968, requests that the Drugs and Crime Prevention Committee of Parliament inquires into, considers and reports to Parliament on amphetamine and ‘party drug’ use in Victoria. In particular the Committee is required to: a) examine the nature, extent and culture of amphetamine and ‘party drug’ use; b) determine the demographic profile of users; c) examine the short and long-term consequences of amphetamine and ‘party drug’ use; d) examine the relationship of amphetamine and ‘party drug’ use to other forms of licit and illicit substance use; e) review the adequacy of existing strategies for dealing with amphetamine and ‘party drug’ use; f) consider best practice strategies to address the issue of amphetamine and ‘party drug’ use, including regulatory, law enforcement, education and treatment responses; and g) examine national and international legislation, reports and materials relevant to the issue. page iv Amphetamines 5/9/03 5:25 PM Page v Contents Drugs and Crime Prevention Committee iii Functions of the Drugs and Crime Prevention Committee iv List of Tables and Figures viii 1. Introduction 1 Terms of Reference 1 Background to the Inquiry 2 Which drugs to include? 3 Work of the Committee 4 Structure of the Discussion Paper 5 2. The Nature of Amphetamines and ‘Party Drugs’ 6 Terminology and nomenclature 7 The drugs and how they are used 13 Amphetamines and methamphetamines 13 Ecstasy (methylenedioxymethamphetamine – MDMA) 29 Other ‘party drugs’ 36 Conclusion 39 Questions for discussion 40 3. The Extent of Use 41 A snapshot of international data 41 Prevalence of drug use in Australia and Victoria 43 What the national data say 45 Victorian drug use 51 Anecdotal evidence regarding current trends 57 Conclusion 59 Questions for discussion 60 4. Effects of Amphetamines and ‘Party Drugs’ – Physical, Psychological and Social Consequences 61 Physical and psychological consequences – Amphetamines 61 Physical and psychological consequences – Ecstasy (MDMA) 75 Physical and psychological consequences – Other ‘party drugs’ 89 Social consequences of amphetamines and party drug use 92 Poly drug use 103 Conclusion 107 Questions for discussion 108 page v Amphetamines 5/9/03 5:25 PM Page vi 5. The Culture and Patterns of Use 110 Defining a culture 111 Amphetamine users in general 113 Amphetamine use in the transport industry 117 Rave and club culture and its relationship to ecstasy use 120 ‘Party drugs’ in the gay and lesbian community 137 Middle-class professionals and ecstasy use 145 Conclusion 148 Questions for discussion 149 6. Law, Law Enforcement, Policing and Supply Control 151 The law pertaining to amphetamines and ‘party drugs’ 151 Problems in policing from a Victoria Police perspective 158 Policing and supply control 159 Conclusion 176 Questions for discussion 176 7. The Manufacture and Distribution of Psychostimulants 178 Manufacturing psychostimulants 178 Dangers associated with manufacture 184 Distribution 187 Conclusion 190 Questions for discussion 191 8. Education, Information and Harm Reduction Issues Pertaining to Amphetamines and ‘Party Drugs’ 192 Introduction 192 Drug education – General 192 Drug education, prevention and information provision – ‘Party drugs’ and amphetamines 197 Harm reduction and harm minimisation – General strategies and initiatives 207 Harm reduction – Amphetamines and ‘party drugs’ 211 Conclusion 228 Questions for discussion 230 9. Treatment Issues Pertaining to Amphetamine and ‘Party Drug’ Use 231 Overview of treatment issues regarding psychostimulants 231 Treatment issues regarding amphetamines and methamphetamines 232 Treatment issues regarding MDMA/ecstasy and other ‘party drugs’ 245 Complicating treatment: Amphetamines, ‘party drugs’ and poly drug use 248 Questions for discussion 249 10. The Need for Further Research: Concluding Remarks 250 The need for greater research 250 Medical and clinical research 251 Social research 256 Evaluative research 258 Conclusion 258 Questions for discussion 260 page vi Amphetamines 5/9/03 5:25 PM Page vii Appendices Appendix 1: List of Submissions Received 261 Appendix 2: Injecting Drug Use 263 Appendix 3: Toxicological Effects of Amphetamines and Other Illicit Drugs 264 Appendix 4: Customs Act 1901 (Cth), Schedule Six 266 Appendix 5: Penalties for Drug Offences 269 Appendix 6: Positive Benefits of Amphetamine Substitution Programmes 270 Bibliography 271 page vii Amphetamines 5/9/03 5:25 PM Page viii List of Tables and Figures Tables Table 2.1: Table of drugs . .. .. 14 Table 3.1: Summary of illicit drug use in the past 12 months: Proportion of the population aged 15 years and over, selected countries, 2000–2001 . .. .. 43 Table 3.2: Summary of recent illicit drug use: Proportion of the population aged 14 years and over, by drug type, Australia, 1991–2001 . .. .. 46 Table 3.3: Summary of illicit drug use in Australia, 2001 . .. .. 47 Table 3.4: Other drugs used with amphetamines, recent users aged 14 and over, by sex, Australia, 2001 . .. .. 49 Table 3.5: Other drugs used with ecstasy/designer drugs, recent users aged 14 years and over, by sex, Australia, 2001 . .. .. 51 Table 3.6: Recent illicit drug use summary: Proportion of the population aged 14 years and over, Australian States and Territories, 2001 . .. .. 52 Table 3.7: Prevalence of amphetamine in heroin-related deaths . .. .. 54 Table 3.8: Trends in ecstasy use . .. .. 55 Table 5.1: Percentage of respondents ever having used ecstasy . .. .. 141 Table 5.2: Percentage of respondents using ecstasy in the last month . .. .. 142 Table 5.3: Percentage of respondents ever having used ketamine . .. .. 142 Table 5.4: Percentage of respondents using ketamine in the last month . .. .. 143 Table 5.5: Percentage of respondents ever having used amphetamines . .. .. 143 Table 5.6: Percentage of respondents using amphetamines in the last month . .. .. 144 Table 7.1: Clandestine laboratory detections, by state and territory, per quarter, 2001–02. 179 Table A: Injecting drug use: First and recent illicit drugs injected, proportion of ever/recent injecting drug users aged 14 years and over, by sex, Australia 2001 . .. .. .. 263 Table B: Toxicological effects of illicit drugs . .. .. 264 Table C: Potential drug interactions with amphetamine . .. .. 264 Table D: Toxicology of GHB . .. .. 265 Table E: Schedule Six – List of scheduled and prohibited drugs, trafficable and commercial quantities . .. .. 266 Table F: List of penalties for drug offences, based on Drugs, Poisons and Controlled Substances Act 1981 (Vic) . .. .. 269 Table G: Positive benefits of amphetamine substitution programmes – From a review of the studies by Shearer et al. for the National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre. 1999 . 270 Figures Figure 3.1: Percentage who have used amphetamines in the last 12 months in Australia,. 2001 . 48 Figure 3.2: Lifetime use of licit and illicit substances by Australian secondary school students, 1999 . .. .. 48 Figure 3.3: Percentage who have used ecstasy in the last 12 months in Australia, 2001 .