RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES INSTITUTE OF ORIENTAL STUDIES Eurasian Center for Big History & System Forecasting SOCIAL EVOLUTION Studies in the Evolution & HISTORY of Human Societies Volume 19, Number 2 / September 2020 DOI: 10.30884/seh/2020.02.00 Contents Articles: Policarp Hortolà From Thermodynamics to Biology: A Critical Approach to ‘Intelligent Design’ Hypothesis .............................................................. 3 Leonid Grinin and Anton Grinin Social Evolution as an Integral Part of Universal Evolution ............. 20 Daniel Barreiros and Daniel Ribera Vainfas Cognition, Human Evolution and the Possibilities for an Ethics of Warfare and Peace ........................................................................... 47 Yelena N. Yemelyanova The Nature and Origins of War: The Social Democratic Concept ...... 68 Sylwester Wróbel, Mateusz Wajzer, and Monika Cukier-Syguła Some Remarks on the Genetic Explanations of Political Participation .......................................................................................... 98 Sarwar J. Minar and Abdul Halim The Rohingyas of Rakhine State: Social Evolution and History in the Light of Ethnic Nationalism .......................................................... 115 Uwe Christian Plachetka Vavilov Centers or Vavilov Cultures? Evidence for the Law of Homologous Series in World System Evolution ............................... 145 Reviews and Notes: Henri J. M. Claessen Ancient Ghana Reconsidered .............................................................. 184 Congratulations to Our Colleagues .................................................... 185 In Memoriam Richard J. Chacon Robert L. Carneiro (1927–2020) ........................................................ 186 ‘Uchitel’ Publishing House Moscow Адрес редакции: 400001, г. Волгоград, ул. Кирова, д. 143. ООО «Издательство «Учитель» Контактные телефоны: (8442) 42-17-71 (доб. 129), 42-04-08. E-mail: [email protected] Адрес издателя: 400001, г. Волгоград, ул. Кирова, д. 143. ООО «Издательство «Учитель» Свидетельство о регистрации СМИ ПИ № 77-11556 от 04 января 2002 г. выдано Министерством Российской Федерации по делам печати, телерадиовещания и средств массовых коммуникаций © Издательство «Учитель» Цена свободная. Подписано в печать 18.10.20. Дата выхода: 10.11.20. Формат 6090/16. Печать офсетная. Усл. печ. л. 12,5. Тираж 1000 экз. Заказ № . The Rohingyas of Rakhine State: Social Evolution and History in the Light of Ethnic Nationalism Sarwar J. Minar Northern Illinois University Abdul Halim Journalist and Independent Researcher ABSTRACT In August 2017, over 725,000 Rohingya Muslims and Hindus were ousted from Rakhine State by the Tatmadaw as it undertook a brutal attack in response to Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army's coordinated attacks on a military base and security force outposts resulting death of twelve. The UN finds Tatmadaw had sheer intent of ‘ethnic cleansing’ and referred the attack as a ‘textbook example’ of ethnic cleansing. These events provoked worldwide public-and-academic interest in history and social evolution of the Rohingyas, and this is to what the article is devoted. As the existing literature presents a debate over ‘Who are the Rohingyas?’, and ‘How legitimate is their claim over Rakhine State?’, the paper reinvestigates the issues using a qualitative research method. Compiling a detailed history, the paper finds that Rohingya community developed through historically complicated pro- cesses marked by invasions and counter-invasions. The paper argues many people entered Bengal from Arakan before British brought people into Rakhine state. The Rohingyas believe Rakhine State is their ances- tral homeland and they developed a sense of ‘Ethnic Nationalism’. Their right over Rakhine State is as significant as other groups. The paper concludes that the UN must pursue solution to the crisis and the government should accept the Rohingyas as it did the land or territory. Keywords: Rohingya, Rakhine State, Arakan, ethnic nationalism, history. Social Evolution & History, Vol. 19 No. 2, September 2020 115–144 2020 ‘Uchitel’ Publishing House DOI: 10.30884/seh/2020.02.06 115 116 Social Evolution & History / September 2020 1. INTRODUCTION Who are the Rohingyas? How legitimate is their claim of belonging- ness in the Rakhine State in Myanmar? The conventional wisdom pre- sents a moderate debate over claims and counter claims: one group of scholars (e.g., Derek Tonkin, Jacques Leider etc.) claims Rohingyas are the people who entered Myanmar during the British rule, and an- other group (e.g., A. P. Phayre, G. E. Harvey, M A Tahir Ba Tha, Ab- dul Karim, Azeem Ibrahim, Kazi Fehmida Farzana etc.) claims that Rohingyas have been living in Rakhine State for centuries. In the backdrop of the debate, this article reinvestigates the issues through qualitative research method assessing the perspectives of the ousted Rohingyas from Myanmar who took shelter in Bangladesh and reevaluating the secondary literatures and historical documents. Rakhine State has historically been known as Arakan. Though the history of the Rohingyas’ inflow into Arakan often referred to the time of British annexation of Burma, this article delves deeper and finds that the history prior to British annexation of Arakan and Burma has been very significant. Though there is no denying the fact that during British colonial period many people were brought into Rakhine state from then Bengal (mostly from Chattogram) and India, it is less known that a huge number of people fled from Arakan/Rakhine State to Chatto- gram (Bengal) during Burmese attack on Arakan prior to British an- nexation of Arakan/Burma forming a significant part of the base popu- lation in Chattogram, Bangladesh. Similarly, people are less aware that the history of Arakan is marked by many such instances of flow of people. It is imperative that we take the history of such flow of people into serious consideration. The article is organized into eleven sections. Following the intro- duction, the second section outlines the research methodology and theoretical framework. Third section briefly summarizes the literature review. The fourth section presents the argument of Rohingyas as a case of ethnic nationalism. The historical evidences are presented from fifth to ninth sections. The fifth section conceptualizes Arakan as a region and draws the history of Arakan in ancient time. The sixth de- scribes the early infiltration of various groups into Arakan, and the sev- enth section portrays history of various invasions and counter-invasions between and among Arakan and its neighboring political entities. The eighth section brings up the developments in Arakan when it was under British Crown Colony, and the ninth section draws insights in the post- independent period of Myanmar. The tenth section draws the social evolution of the Rohingyas in Rakhine State during pre-colonial, colo- Minar and Halim / The Rohingyas of Rakhine State 117 nial, and postcolonial period. Lastly, the eleventh section discusses the findings and draws conclusion. 2. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK This is a qualitative research project and uses nonparticipant obser- vation method relying on both primary and secondary data. The pri- mary data are collected from fifty interviews in the field using a semi- structured questionnaire on the Rohingyas living in Teknaf, Cox's Ba- zar, Bangladesh. The secondary data are collected from various avail- able secondary literature that includes books, journal articles, reports, newspapers, blogs, news portals and so forth. Based on the primary data from the field interviews, the paper assesses how the Rohingyas see themselves or their identity and how they relate their claim over their living place in Rakhine State, Myanmar. In order to understand such historical context, the article uses the secondary literature on his- tory to study Rohingyas' history, because the secondary literatures serve as the best data source when there is no other better available data and this definitely enriches the research. Based on the findings of the interviews, the article appropriates evolutionary approach to ethnic nationalism and ethnic nationalist identity formation of the Rohingyas to address the issue. ‘Ethnic na- tionalism’ is a form of nationalism where nation is defined in terms of the ethnicity of the people, whereas, ‘nation’ may be defined as unity of people based on language, shared culture, history, heritage, a com- mon and shared ethnic ancestry etc. (Yun 1990). The article uses ‘Ethnic Nationalism’ as theoretical framework which was developed by Anthony D. Smith (Smith 1994) as it is con- sidered as the most satisfactory among the three spectra of national- ism: Ethno Nationalism, Ethnic Nationalism and Mini Nationalism (Yun 1990). Smith provides a comparison between ‘Territorial Na- tionalism’ and ‘Ethnic Nationalism.’ While ‘Territorial Nationalism’ denotes to formation of nationalism based on a territory, the living place of its inhabitants, which gives a sense of bondage and common identity that goes beyond other lesser bondages, and assimilates eth- nic, linguistic, religious, cultural differences, ‘Ethnic Nationalism’ instead focuses on the ethnicity of the people which gives a sense of bondage and common identity. However, the sense of belongingness may not always be something inherent rather it may also be created by the elite class and imposed on the general people for greater political leverage. 118 Social Evolution & History / September 2020 3.