HYDROPLANING AND SKID RESISTANCE ANALYSIS USING NUMERICAL MODELING ONG GHIM PING RAYMOND (B. Eng (Civil) First Class Honours, NUS) A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2006 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author would like to express his utmost appreciation and gratitude to his supervisor, Professor Fwa Tien Fang, for his constant guidance, care, support and encouragement throughout the research. He would also like to extend his gratitude to Dr. Guo Junke, Associate Professor Choo Yoo Sang and Associate Professor Lin Pengzhi, members of his PhD committee for their support and recommendations made to improve the research. Special thanks are given to the National University of Singapore for providing the research scholarship during the course of research. Thanks are also extended to fellow research mates, Dr. Lee Yang Pin Kelvin, Dr. Liu Wei, Dr. Tan Jun Yew, Dr. Zhu Liying, Ms. Liu Ying, Mr. Wang Yan, Mr. Bagus Hario Setiadji and Mr. Joselito Guevarra for the kind help and friendship. Gratitude is accorded to Mr. Foo Chee Kiong, Mr. Goh Joon Kiat, Mr. Mohammed Farouk, Mrs. Yap-Chong Wei Leng and Mrs. Yu-Ng Chin Hoe of the Transportation Engineering Laboratory; Mr. Sit Beng Chiat of the Structural Engineering Laboratory; Mr. Yeo Eng Hee, Mr. Wang Junhong and Mr. Zhang Xinhuai of the Supercomputing and Visualization Unit of the National University of Singapore Computer Center for their kind assistance and support in the course of research. Finally, the author would like to express his heartfelt thanks and gratitude to his parents for their tremendous care, utmost support and encouragement given to the author in his work. i TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS i TABLE OF CONTENTS ii SUMMARY vii LIST OF TABLES ix LIST OF FIGURES xii NOMENCLATURE xvii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Objectives 3 1.3 Organization of Thesis 4 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 6 2.1 Skid Resistance 6 2.2 Factors Affecting Skid Resistance 7 2.2.1 Pavement Surface Characteristics 8 2.2.1.1 Microtexture 9 2.2.1.2 Macrotexture 9 2.2.2 Presence of Contaminants 10 2.2.3 Vehicle Speed 11 2.3 Friction Testing Methodologies 11 2.3.1 Field Measurements 11 2.3.1.1 Locked-Wheel Methods 12 2.3.1.2 Slip Methods 12 2.3.1.3 Side-Force Methods 13 2.3.2 Laboratory Measurements 14 2.4 Contact Mechanisms for Dry Tire-Pavement Interaction 15 2.4.1 Classical Friction Theories 15 2.4.2 Friction Theories involving Rubber 16 2.4.3 Adhesion 18 2.4.4 Hysteresis 20 2.4.5 Wear 22 2.5 Contact Mechanisms for Wet Tire-Fluid-Pavement Interaction 23 2.5.1 Development of Lubrication Theories 23 2.5.1.1 Hydrodynamic Lubrication 25 2.5.1.2 Elasto-Hydrodynamic Lubrication 26 2.5.1.3 Boundary Lubrication 27 2.5.2 Friction Mechanisms in Tire-Fluid-Pavement Interaction 28 2.5.2.1 Friction Modes in Wet Tire-Fluid-Pavement Interaction 28 2.5.2.2 Mechanism of Tire Sliding on Wet Pavement 29 2.6 Hydroplaning 30 2.6.1 Forms of Hydroplaning 30 2.6.1.1 Dynamic Hydroplaning 30 2.6.1.2 Viscous Hydroplaning 31 2.6.1.3 Reverted-Rubber Hydroplaning 31 2.6.2 Manifestations of Hydroplaning 32 2.7 Modeling of Hydroplaning 33 2.7.1 Experimental/Empirical Approaches in Hydroplaning Studies 34 2.7.1.1 Studies on the Effect of Depth of Fluid on Hydroplaning 34 2.7.1.2 Studies on the Effect of Tire Inflation Pressure on 36 ii Hydroplaning 2.7.1.3 Studies on the Effect of Tire Tread Design on Hydroplaning 37 2.7.1.4 Studies on the Effect of Vertical Load on Hydroplaning 37 2.7.1.5 Studies on the Effect of Tire-Footprint Aspect Ratio on 38 Hydroplaning 2.7.1.6 Studies on the Effect of Pavement Surface Texture on 38 Hydroplaning 2.7.1.7 Studies on the Effect of Pavement Grooving on Hydroplaning 39 2.7.2 Analytical/Numerical Modeling of Hydroplaning 40 2.8 Modeling of Skid Resistance 43 2.8.1 Experimental/Empirical Approach in Skid Resistance Studies 44 2.8.2 Analytical/Numerical Modeling of Skid Resistance 46 2.9 Summary 48 2.10 Research Needs and Scope of Work 49 CHAPTER 3: DEVELOPMENT OF PNEUMATIC TIRE HYDROPLANING 64 MODEL 3.1 Introduction 64 3.2 Fluid Flow Model 64 3.2.1 Fundamental Laws of Fluid Flow 64 3.2.2 Flows in the Turbulent Regime 66 3.2.3 Turbulence Modeling 67 3.3 Hydroplaning Tire Deformation Model 69 3.4 Pavement Surface Model 70 3.5 Concept of Hydroplaning Modeling 71 3.6 Computational Fluid Dynamics in Hydroplaning Simulation 71 3.6.1 Multiphase Modeling and the Volume of Fluid (VOF) Model 72 3.6.1.1 Multiphase Modeling 72 3.6.1.2 Volume of Fluid (VOF) Model 73 3.6.2 Turbulence Modeling using the Standard k-ε Model 75 3.6.3 Wall Functions 75 3.6.3.1 Treatment of Momentum 75 3.6.3.2 Treatment of Turbulence 76 3.6.4 Solver Algorithms 77 3.6.4.1 Segregated Solver 77 3.6.4.2 Pressure Interpolation Scheme 77 3.6.4.3 Pressure-Velocity Coupling 77 3.7 Two-Dimensional Modeling of Browne’s Experiment 78 3.7.1 Geometry of Model 78 3.7.2 Boundary Conditions 79 3.7.3 Material Properties 80 3.7.4 Description of Mesh used in the Analysis 80 3.7.5 Simulation Results Based on the Proposed Two-Dimensional Model 81 3.7.6 Mesh Sensitivity Analysis 82 3.7.7 Effect of Boundary Conditions 83 3.7.8 Analysis of Results and Suitability for Hydroplaning Simulation 84 3.8 Three-Dimensional Modeling of Browne’s Experiment 84 3.8.1 Geometry of Model and Selection of Boundary Conditions 85 3.8.2 Description of Mesh used for 3-D simulation 85 3.8.3 Simulation Results Based on Proposed 3-D Model 85 3.8.4 Mesh Sensitivity Analysis 86 3.8.5 Effect of Boundary Conditions 87 3.8.6 Analysis of Results and Suitability for Hydroplaning Simulation 88 3.9 Summary 90 iii CHAPTER 4: SIMULATION OF HYDROPLANING ON PLANE PAVEMENT 115 SURFACE 4.1 Introduction 115 4.2 Pneumatic Tire Model 115 4.3 Pavement Surface Model 116 4.4 Three-Dimensional Modeling of Hydroplaning 116 4.4.1 Geometry of Model and Selection of Boundary Conditions 116 4.4.2 Description of Mesh used in the Analysis 117 4.4.3 Simulation Results 117 4.4.4 Mesh Sensitivity Analysis 118 4.4.5 Effect of Boundary Conditions 119 4.4.6 Analysis of Results 119 4.4.7 Repeat of Analysis Using NASA Predicted Hydroplaning Speed 121 4.5 Effect of Tire Pressure on Hydroplaning 121 4.5.1 Modeling Methodology 121 4.5.2 Results and Analysis 122 4.6 Effect of Microtexture on Hydroplaning 123 4.6.1 Theoretical Aspects on Incorporating Roughness 124 4.6.2 Modeling Aspects on Incorporating Roughness 126 4.6.3 Results and Analysis 127 4.7 Summary 130 CHAPTER 5: HYDROPLANING ON PAVEMENT WITH GROOVING 149 5.1 Introduction 149 5.2 Verification of Simulation Model for Pavement with Pavement Grooving 150 5.2.1 Verification against Experimental Data for Transverse Pavement 150 Grooving 5.2.2 Verification against Experimental Data for Longitudinal Pavement 151 Grooving 5.3 Simulation of Hydroplaning on Pavement with Pavement Grooving 152 5.3.1 Simulation Results for Transverse Pavement Grooving Designs 152 5.3.2 Simulation Results for Longitudinal Pavement Grooving Designs 153 5.3.3 Comparison between Transverse and Longitudinal Pavement Grooving 154 for Designs A, B and C 5.4 Effect of Transverse Groove Dimensions on Hydroplaning 154 5.4.1 Model Parameters Used in Study 154 5.4.2 Results and Analysis 155 5.4.2.1 Effect of Groove Depth on Hydroplaning 155 5.4.2.2 Effect of Groove Width on Hydroplaning 157 5.4.2.3 Effect of Groove Spacing on Hydroplaning 158 5.4.2.4 Relative Effects of Groove Depth, Width and Spacing 159 5.5 Effect of Longitudinal Groove Dimensions on Hydroplaning 160 5.5.1 Model Parameters Used in Study 160 5.5.2 Simulation Results 161 5.5.2.1 Effect of Groove Depth on Hydroplaning 161 5.5.2.2 Effect of Groove Width on Hydroplaning 162 5.5.2.3 Effect of Groove Spacing on Hydroplaning 163 5.5.2.4 Relative Effects of Groove Depth, Width and Spacing 164 5.6 Comparison between Transverse and Longitudinal Pavement Grooving in 165 Hydroplaning Prevention 5.7 Summary 167 iv CHAPTER 6: DESIGN AND EVALUATION OF PAVEMENT GROOVES 196 AGAINST HYDROPLANING 6.1 Introduction 196 6.2 Concept of Hydroplaning Risk in Pavement Groove Dimension Design and 196 Evaluation 6.2.1 Definition of Hydroplaning Risk 196 6.2.2 Evaluation of Hydroplaning Risk for Given Pavement Groove Design 197 6.2.3 Design of Pavement Groove Dimension based on Hydroplaning Risk 198 6.3 Numerical Example on the Evaluation of Hydroplaning Risk for a given 199 Pavement Groove Design 6.3.1 Evaluating Hydroplaning Risks for Transverse Pavement Grooving 200 6.3.2 Evaluating Hydroplaning Risks for Longitudinal Pavement Grooving 201 6.3.3 Comparison of Hydroplaning Risk in Transverse and Longitudinal 201 Pavement Grooving 6.4 Numerical Example on Pavement Groove Dimension Design using Hydroplaning 202 Risk Concept 6.4.1 Design of Transverse Groove Dimensions 202 6.4.2 Design of Longitudinal Groove Dimensions 204 6.5 Summary 204 CHAPTER 7: WET TIRE PAVEMENT INTERACTION AND 210 HYDROPLANING MODELING 7.1 Introduction 210 7.2 Finite Element Modeling of Tire-Fluid-Pavement Interaction 211 7.2.1 Overall Concept of Modeling Tire-Fluid-Pavement Interaction 211 7.2.2 Pneumatic Tire Modeling 213 7.2.3 Pavement Surface Modeling 214 7.2.4 Tire-Pavement Contact Modeling 215 7.2.5 Fluid Flow Modeling 216 7.2.6 Fluid-Structure Interaction (FSI) Modeling 218 7.3 Hydroplaning Analysis and Verification of Model 219 7.4 Effect of Footprint Aspect Ratio on Hydroplaning 220 7.5 Effect of Water-Film Thickness on Hydroplaning 221 7.6 Comparing Factors affecting Hydroplaning Speed 223 7.7 Summary 225 CHAPTER 8: NUMERICAL MODELING OF WET PAVEMENT SKID 238 RESISTANCE 8.1 Introduction