Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without the permission of the Author. ‘Whakapuputia mai o mānuka’ A case study on indigenous knowledge and mitigating the threat of Myrtle Rust (Austropuccinia psidii) A research thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Horticultural Science School of Agriculture and Environment Palmerston North, New Zealand Mesulame J Tora July 2019 i Toitu te marae o Tāne Toitu te marae o Tangaroa Toitu te iwi If the domain of Tāne survives to give sustenance, and the domain of Tangaroa likewise remains, so too will the people (Whakataukī or proverb shared by Te Ātiawa, 2018) i Abstract This research centres on the recent myrtle rust (Austropuccinia psidii) incursion in New Zealand to review the literature on the disease specifically and to create a localised case study with Ngāi Tāneroa hapū of Ngāti Kahungunu ki Wairarapa. The case study focused on the importance of whakapapa, mātauranga Māori, tikanga Māori and the practices of kaitiaki to ethnobotany and the development of indigenous biosecurity measures (tools) to protect culturally important plant species within the Māori community The proverb stated in the title of this thesis whakapuputia mai o Mānuka, kia kore ai te whati – (cluster the branches of the Mānuka, so they will not break off) recognizes the status of plant knowledge in te Ao Māori. It provides a foundation of understanding how Māori can participate in resource management against biological threats, which are becoming increasingly common. The science around myrtle rust and the mitigation of any incursion threats is clearly aligned to western paradigms. The information presented in this thesis outlines an extensive understanding of the intricacies of the disease as understood by the science community. But this science alone has not been able to halt the spread or risk of myrtle rust into new geographical regions. Therefore, future management of the risk of myrtle rust incursions needs to look at alternative approaches for the development of suitable management tools. The holistic approach of traditional biodiversity management using mātauranga and tikanga Māori has much to offer to conservation of taonga resources, especially the mitigation of biological threats. The Māori worldview of the environment encompasses all elements beyond the physical attributes of an ecosystem that thrives through traditional kaitiaki inputs. The case study with Ngāi Tenaroa introduced several examples of how Māori can contribute to the mitigation of all threats on the ecosystem, not just fungal threats. Firstly, the role of whakapapa is explicit and cannot be ignored. This role consolidates the management tools across all generations at the very least. Secondly, the role of networks within Māori communities and inter-generational learning is also clear – and the risk that exists if this is lost is apparent. Lastly, examples of local knowledge such as the effect of hukahuka on plant health, companion trees and role of kaitiaki in decision-making have been identified and their importance conveyed from the hapū under study. ii Acknowledgements The journey to completing this thesis received much help, assistance and advice from many people throughout the course of the research and writing process. I am deeply indebted to the support given towards this thesis and as a token of appreciation, I would like to acknowledge them here for their involvement in my study. Firstly, I would like to thank the Lord for his guidance and protection over my life and the course of my study. Secondly, I would like to acknowledge the hapū of Ngāi Tāneroa for allowing me to carry out my research at Uhi-Mānuka. I appreciate the holistic connection that exists at Uhi-Mānuka and the wealth of stories and knowledge. My heartfelt gratitude goes out to Nanny Frances and her whānau. I deeply appreciate your trust and the time you shared with me throughout my fieldwork. Thank you for the lovely meals and kōrero you always put on the table with a smile. Thank you for your never ending support and your openness to sharing your knowledge. I pray that God will continue to bless you and your future plans for the hapū, the marae, and Uhi-Mānuka. I extend my sincere gratefulness to my primary supervisor, Associate Professor Nick Roskruge. Vinaka Nick for believing in me to finish this thesis. It has been a long journey which at times been felt like a lost one. However, you been always there with your unceasing support. Likewise, thank you for sharing your extensive Māori knowledge which has dearly been a major component of my learning. Vinaka Vakalevu na veivuke matua kei na loloma. Also, thanks to the BioProtection Research Centre (NZ) at Lincoln for funding my studies and to the staff at Massey University, Māori Resource Studies, School of Agriculture and Environment for the technical support. To my Pioneer family here in Palmerston North, thank you for all the great memories and for making this journey a wonderful yet challenging one! Up the Tui’s. And lastly, I dedicate this thesis to my family in Navatalewai, Vunavauvula and Qwelelo, of Dratabu Village, Fiji. Vina valevu na dau vinumi tu me na masu qania na loloma! Siro koto lea loloma ledu momo mei yata i na ledu yaloga ni were yajia. iii E Iti noa ana, nā te aroha Though my present be small, my loves goes with it. iv Table of Contents Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................... iii List of Tables ............................................................................................................................ vii List of Figures ........................................................................................................................... vii Chapter 1: General Introduction ................................................................................................ 1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 1 Background ............................................................................................................................ 4 Research Question: ................................................................................................................ 6 Research Objectives ............................................................................................................... 6 Case Study .............................................................................................................................. 6 Chapters Overview ................................................................................................................. 7 Chapter 2: Methodology ............................................................................................................ 8 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 8 Ethics ...................................................................................................................................... 9 Kaupapa Māori Research framework (KMR) ....................................................................... 10 Ethnobotanical framework .................................................................................................. 13 Qualitative vs Quantitative research ................................................................................... 14 Indigenous Methodologies .................................................................................................. 15 Case study methodology...................................................................................................... 16 Participatory and semi-structured methodology ................................................................ 17 Chapter 3: TEK, Ethnobotany and Māori conservation ........................................................... 20 TEK and Ethnobotany conservation ..................................................................................... 20 Understanding TEK and its link to Conservation ................................................................. 21 TEK and Western Science..................................................................................................... 25 The role of TEK within Ethnobotany .................................................................................... 26 The Māori worldview ........................................................................................................... 27 Māori and whenua (land) .................................................................................................... 30 Māori and Taonga species ................................................................................................... 30 Māori TEK - environment and conservation ........................................................................ 32 Chapter 4: Fungi pathogens ..................................................................................................... 36 Fungi ....................................................................................................................................