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Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographically in this copy. Higher quality 6* x 9* black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order. Bell & Howell Information and Learning 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 USA 800-521-0600 UMI" THE RISE OF LESBIAN, GAY, AND BISEXUAL RIGHTS IN THE WORKPLACE DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment o f the Requnrements for The Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Nicole C. Raeburn, NLA * * * * The Ohio State University 2000 Dissertation Committee: Approved by Professor Verta A Taylor, Advisor Professor J. Craig Jenkms Advisor Professor Randy D. Hodson Sodoio^ Graduate Progam UMI Number 9971619 UMI* UMI Microform9971619 Copyright 2000 by Bell & Howell Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition Is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. Bell & Howell Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Art)or, Ml 48106-1346 Copyright by Nicole Christine Raebum 2000 ABSTRACT Despite the ongoing backlash agamst lesbian and gay rights, a rapidly growing number of corporations are adopting gay-mclusive policies and practices. The question arises as to why such policies are being instituted in some corporations and not others. I argue that the answer requires a synthesis of two previously separate theoretical traditions: new institutional approaches that focus on the role that isomorphic processes play in the difibsion of a policy innovation among similarly situated organizations; and social movement perspectives that accentuate the hnpact o f political opportunities and the role of mobilized constituencies as agents of social change. My analysis focuses on the mobilization o f gay, lesbian, and bisexual employee networks over the past decade to win domestic partner benefits in "Fortune 1000" companies. My multimethod approach utilizes surveys of 98 corporations with and without gay networks, mtensive interviews with vice presidents of human resources and gay employee activists, and a small number of case studies. I of&r a multilevel institutional opportunityframework that delineates the key dimensions o f opportunity that challengers fitce m attemptmg to transform their organization's policies and practices. I adt^t political opportunity theory to identity the organizational- or corporate-level variables that ecplain variations m activist success, and I ii draw from neoinstitutional approaches to understand the policy impact of isomorphic processes in the larger organizational field and sociopolitical environment. Adaptmg new social movement theory and other cultural approaches, I also examme how activist variations in framing and identity-oriented strategies effect policy outcomes. Findings show that resources and strategic decisions matter, even fr^larger institutional frctors mediate success. Results also suggest that although in the vast m^ority of cases the workplace movement spearheaded corporate transformation, following the first waves of adoption, institutional processes came into greater play such that the presence of a gay activist group is now less necessary for policy change. m Dedicated to my mother, my first and best teacher, and to my âther, my first and best study partner nr ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many people deserve continued thanks for ah of the support, assistance, and feedback th ^ provided to me while I was conceptualizing this project, gathering the data, analyzing, and writing. I would first like to thank my dissertation committee. Craig Jenkins and Randy Hodson were mcredibly supportive. They ofifered guidance through their insightfiil questions and comments and through their own research, which inspired me to combine social movement theory and organizational analysis. Verta Taylor, my advisor, was with me every step of the way, encouraging me to think broadly and deeply and to not scale back the project despite her and others' warnings that it was big enough for two or three dissertations. Verta is an amazing mentor—she not only shows by example what it means to be a true scholar, a wonderfiilly gifted teacher, and a dedicated feminist. She also demonstrates passion for the field, helps her students develop relationships with junior and senior scholars, and shows us how to give back to the discipline, university, and department through her untirmg acts o f service. While her voicemail and e-mail fin to capacity and thelme outside her office door seems never to shorten, her smile and quick wit somehow remain. She loves what she does, and she loves her students. Her mentormg and her fiiendsfnp are gifts that I wifi always treasure. I would also like to thank the numerous people who helped me through the course of the dissertation by ofièring such kind and crucial gestures as these-showing a genuine interest in my w or^ engaging in mtellectuaQy sthnulating dialogue, providing methodological advice, solvmg computer problems, encouraging me in my efforts toward theoretical synthesis, giving me feedback on my proposal and on the papers I presented at professional meetings, sending me clippings on workplace issues, helping me find contacts in corporations, and remindmg me that research and writing can be tools for social change. For all of this and more, I thank Barry Adam, Joan Amfield, Mary Bernstein, Egan and Jerry Bradnan, Bob Clyd^ Elizabeth C ooks^, John D*Emilio, Kim Dugan, Rachel Einwohner, Bill Form, the late Clyde Franklm, Pat Gagné, Josh Gamson, Christine Hahn, Gia Hinkle, Joan Huber, Bert Klandermans, the late Marty Levine, Pat Yancey Nfertin, Doug McAdam, Betty Menaghan, David M ^er, Debra Minkofi^ Jen Moreno, Aldon Morris, Andrew Newman, Jodi O'Brien, Cynthia Pelak, Townsand Price-Spratlen, Jo Reger, Barbara Reskin, John Reynolds, LeHa Rupp, \fichael Schwartz, Larry Spencer, Sid Tarrow, Marieke Van WHligen, Molly Wallace, the late A n Woods, and my colleagues and students at the University o f San Francisco, where I found my dream job. For their long-distance help, doing so many things in Columbus for me after I moved to San Francisco, I would like to thank Betsy Kaminski and Beckett Broh. For providing me with contact lists and important information on lesbian, gay, and bisexual issues in the woricplace, I thank Christian Arthur Bain, editor of 7%e GtQ^/Lesbian, Bisexual Corpctreae Letter, Demian. o fthe Partners Task Force for Gay and Lesbian Couples; Gerald Hunt o f the Academy of Management; diversity consultants Marie vi Kaplan, Jay Lucas, Brian McNaugfat, and Liz Wmfèid; Sally Kohn, formerly o f the National Gay and Lesbian Task Force; Kerry Lobel, former Executive Dhector of the National Gay and Lesbian Task Force; and Kim \fills and Daryl Herrschaft, Director of Education and Research Coordinator o f the WorWfet Workplace Project o f the Human Rights Campaign, I would also like to «press my sincere appreciation to the individuals who agreed to be surv^ed and interviewed for this project. While confidentiality prevents me fi’om acknowledging them by name, I send out my deepest thanks to each one of them, I especially want to thank all o f the activists and allies, whose dedication to creating change in the workplace and larger society was constantly inspirmg, and whose stories provide the heart and soul of this dissertation I am also grateful for the following sources of financial support which helped make this project possible: a National Science Foundation Doctoral Dissertation Research Improvement Grant; an American Sociological Association/National Science Foundation Fund for the Advancement o f the Discipline Award; a Vfortm P. Levine Memorial Dissertation Fellowship Honorable Mention firom the S « and Gender Section of the American Sociological Association; and various scholarly and financial awards fi’om the Ohio State University, including a Presidential Fellowship from the Graduate School, a Research-Intense Summer Fellowship from the Department of Sociology, a Graduate Student Alumni Research Award &om the Graduate School, the Elizabeth D, Gee Research Award fi’om the Center for Women's Studies, two Sociolo^ Graduate Student Research Support Awards fi’om the Rabbi Morris SiNerman Fund for Research m Human vii Rights, and an Outstanding Graduate Student Award from the OfSce o f Gay, Lesbian, and Bisecual Student Services. Most of all, I want to thank my parents Duane and Mary Raeburn, my brother Chris and his wife Dani, and my life partner Liz Pesch. Their constant love, support, guidance, and frith in me serve as my rock, my joy, my msphration. Dad, I miss you more deeply than words can say, but I frel you with me always. I leam from and with you every day. Mom, you are my hero, the strongest person I will ever know, and my role model for what a teacher and best friend should be. You and Dad are parems beyond children's wildest dreams. Chris, my baby brother, from your earliest days, you have always held my hand and helped me not to be afraid.