
Improving Network Performance: An Evaluation of TCP/UDP on Networks A Doctor of Computing Thesis by Shaneel Narayan Supervisors Principal Professor Abdolhossein Sarrafzadeh Associate Dr Chandimal Jayawardena Dr Iman Ardekani Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Computing Department of Computing UNITEC Institute of Technology Auckland, New Zealand December 2014 Dedicated to my mum and my little angel Abstract Computer networks are complex - they are a heterogeneous environment in which numerous services, such as electronic mail, web browsing, voice and multimedia data, traverse the globe daily. The needs and demands of end users continuously change, and to meet these, new technologies are being incorporated into this mega digital infrastructure at a phenomenal rate. In addition to ensuring that necessary functionalities are provided, it is vitally important to ensure that network performance is always at its optimum. Fundamentally, networks are an environment where data, mostly in the form of TCP and UDP, are being propagated end-to-end between the sending and receiving nodes. There are numerous avenues of network performance that can be exploited in order to improve its performance. Research in this area is multi-faceted, and in this thesis the focus is on evaluating the behaviour of TCP and UDP end-to-end on networks in three scenarios, namely, networks with transition mechanisms, wireless based networks, and in the context of using virtual private network technologies as security protocols. This thesis will give insights into the behaviour of common protocols on real networks. Therefore, performance metrics related to networks have been gathered from test-bed implementations. The collected data has been pre- sented in graphs and heat maps, which have been evaluated to ascertain network related characteristics. In particular, key metrics have been identi- fied, networking techniques within each context have been ranked, specific observations related to each network environment have been made, and fi- nally, the impact of either version of the Internet Protocol or an operating system has been evaluated. v Acknowledgments A lifelong dream of completing a Doctorate has been fulfilled, and for that, first and foremost I would like to thank my Mum. She has inspired me and instilled in me the value of education. Her sacrifices, blessings, and encour- agement have been my strength from inception to conclusion. Thank you Mum. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my principal supervisor Pro- fessor Abdolhossein Sarrafzadeh, and associate supervisors Dr Chandimal Jayawardena and Dr Iman Ardekani. Thank you for giving me an opportu- nity to work with you, your guidance has been priceless. Special acknowl- edgements go to my employer Unitec Institute of Technology and the De- partment of Computing for supporting me in this process for a number of years. I thank my Head of Department Professor Abdolhossein Sarrafzadeh for believing in me. A big shout out to all those undergraduate and postgraduate students who have worked with me tirelessly on various network research projects over the last 14 years. Your enthusiasm and support has been brilliant. I am forever grateful for my daughter Gitali’s unconditional love. Moments with you are always priceless, and now with the completion of the Doctor- ate, I will spend more time with you. Last but not least, I would like to thank God for being my strength. Without His blessings, this would have never come to fruition. vii List of Abbreviations AES Advance Encryption Standard AH Authentication Header AMID Additive-Increase Multiplicative-Decrease APNIC Asia Pacific Network Information Centre ARP Address Resolution Protocol ARPA Advance Research Project Agency BYOD Bring Your Own Device CA Certification Authority CCK Complementary Coding Key CCMP Chaining Message Authentication Code Protocol CGA Cryptographic Anomaly CHAP Challenge-Handshake Authentication Protocol CIDR Cluster-based Inter-Domain Routing CPU Central Processing Unit CRC Cyclic Redundancy Check CSMA/CA Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance D-ITG Distributed-Internet Traffic Generator DES Data Encryption Standard ix DHCP Dynamic Host Control Protocol DNS Domain Name System DoD Department of Defense DOS Denial of Service DSCP Differentiated Service Code Point DSSS Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum DSTM Dual Stack Transition Mechanism DTTS Dynamic Tunnelling Transition Solution DUPACK Duplicate Acknowledgement EAP Extensible Authentication Protocol ECN Explicit Congestion Notification ELISIA Evolvable Locator/ID Separation Internet Architecture ERP Extended Rate Physical ESP Encapsulated Security Payload FTP File Transfer Protocol GPRS General Packet Radio Services GRE Generic Routing Examinations HMAC Hash Message Authentication Code HR-DSSS High Rate - DSSS HTTP Hypertext Transfer Protocol HTTPS Secure HTTP IANA Internet Assignment Numbers Authority ICAAN Internet Corporation for Assignment Name and Numbers ICMP Internet Control Message Protocol ICV Integrity Check Value IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers IETF Internet Engineering Task Force x IGMP Internet Group Message Protocol IKE Internet Key Exchange IMP Interface Message Processor IP Internet Protocol IPSec Internet Protocol Security ISAKMP Internet Security Association and Key Management Protocol ISATAP Intra-Site Automatic Tunnel Addressing Protocol ISM Industrial Scientific Medical ISO International Organization for Standards ISP Internet Service Provider IV Initiation Vector IVC Integrity Value Check L2TP Layer 2 Tunnelling Protocol LAN Local Area Network LDPC Low-Density Parity-Check MAC Media Access Control MANET Mobile Ad hoc Network MD Message Digest MIC Message Integrity Check MIMO Mutiple-Input and Multiple-Output MPPE Microsoft Point-to-Point Encryption MTU Maximum Transmission Unit MU-MIMO Multiple-User MIMO NAPT-PT Network Address Port Translation - Protocol Translation NAT Network Address Translation NAT-PT Network Address Translation - Protocol Translation NBMA Non-Broadcast Multiple Access xi NDP Neighbor Discover Protocol NIC Network Interface Card NLB Network Load Balancing OFDM Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing OSI Open Systems Interconnection PAT Port Address Translation PEAP Protected EAP PET Prefixing, Encapsulating, and Translation PKI Public Key Infrastructure PPP Point-to-Point Protocol PPTP Point-to-Point Tunnelling Protocol PRL Potential Router List PSK Pre-Shared Key PSMP Power Save Multi-Poll QAM Quadrature Amplitude Modulation QoS Quality of Service RA Router Advertisement RARP Reverse Address Resolution Protocol RC Rivest Cipher RD Reverse Direction RFC Request for Comments RIPE NCC The Rseaux IP Europens Network Coordination Centre RIR Regional Internet Registry RS Router Solicitation SA Security Association SACK Selective Acknowledgement SDM Spatial-Division Multiplexing xii SEND Secure Neighbor Discovery SGI Short Guard Interval SHA Secure Hash Algorithm SKEME Security Key Exchange Mechanism SLAAC Stateless Address Auto-configuration SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol SPD Security Policy Database SPI Security Parameter Index SSL Secure Socket Layer ssthresh Slow Start Threshold SSTP Secure Socket Tunnelling Protocol STBC Space-Time Block Code TCP Transmission Control Protocol TCPA Teredo Client Protection Algorithm TELNET Terminal Network or Network Virtual Terminal Protocol TEP Tunnel End-Point TKIP Temporal Key Integrity Protocol TTL Time to Live UDP User Datagram Protocol UHF Ultra High Frequency VHT Very High Throughput VoIP Voice over Internet Protocol VPN Virtual Private Network WEP Wired Equivalent Privacy WiGig Wireless Gigabit WiMax Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access WLAN Wireless LAN WPA Wi-Fi Protected Access xiii Contents Abstract v Acknowledgements vii List of Abbreviations xiii List of Publications 1 1 Introduction 5 1.1 Thesis Objectives . 8 1.2 Thesis Contributions . 9 1.3 Thesis Structure . 10 2 Background 11 2.1 Introduction and Motivations . 11 2.2 A Layered Structure . 12 2.2.1 OSI Reference Model . 13 2.2.2 TCP Reference Model . 16 2.2.3 OSI and TCP Reference Model Comparison . 18 2.2.4 The Internet Model . 19 2.2.5 The UDP Protocol . 22 2.2.6 The TCP Protocol . 24 2.2.7 IP Header . 35 2.2.8 Comparison of IPv4 and IPv6 . 37 xv Contents 2.2.9 Exhaustion of IPv4 addresses . 40 2.2.10 IP Addressing . 41 2.2.11 TCP/UDP Related Research . 44 3 Methodology 47 3.1 Testing Networks in Realistic Conditions . 47 3.1.1 Simulation . 48 3.1.2 Emulation . 50 3.1.3 Test-bed Networks . 51 3.2 Experimental Test-bed Architecture . 52 3.2.1 Network Schematic . 53 3.2.2 Traffic Generation Software . 54 3.2.3 Traffic Generator . 55 3.3 Performance Metrics . 56 3.4 Test-bed Data Collection . 58 4 TCP/UDP Behaviour across Transition Mechanisms 63 4.1 Introduction and Motivation . 63 4.2 The IP Addressing Problem . 64 4.3 The Transition Mechanisms . 67 4.3.1 Dual Stack . 67 4.3.2 Address Translation . 69 4.3.3 Tunnelling . 73 4.4 Literature Analysis of Transition Mechanisms . 83 4.5 Test-bed Transition Mechanism Implementations . 86 4.6 Performance Metrics Measurement for various Transition Mech- anisms . 92 4.7 Results Evaluation . 107 5 TCP and UDP Behaviour in Wireless Environments 109 5.1 Introduction and Motivation . 109 5.2 Wireless Preamble . 110 5.3 Wireless Standards . 112 5.3.1 IEEE802.11b . 114 5.3.2 IEEE802.11g . 115 xvi Contents 5.3.3 IEEE802.11n . 116 5.3.4 IEEE802.11ac . 117 5.4 Wireless Security Protocols . 120 5.4.1 Wired Equivalent Privacy . 120 5.4.2 Wi-Fi Protected Access . 122 5.4.3 Wi-Fi Protected Access 2 . 124 5.5 Some Key Research . 125 5.6 Wireless Test-bed Setup . 126 5.7 Performance Metrics Measurements from Wireless Test-beds . 127 5.8 Results Evaluation . 144 6 TCP/UDP Behaviour in Virtual Private Networks 147 6.1 Introduction and Motivation . 147 6.2 VPN Preamble . 147 6.3 VPN Protocols . 149 6.3.1 Layer 2 VPN Protocols . 150 6.3.2 Layer 3 VPN Protocols . 151 6.4 Key VPN Research . 167 6.5 VPN Test-bed Setup . 168 6.6 Performance Metrics Measurements from IPSec and SSTP VPN Protocols . 169 6.7 Results Evaluation . 183 7 Discussion 185 7.1 Preamble .
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