Understanding the Exergame User Experience: Users' Motivation, Attitude and Behaviour in a Location-Aware Pervasive Exergame for Adolescent Children by Andrew Peter Macvean Submitted in satisfaction of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy Heriot-Watt University School of Mathematical and Computer Sciences Edinburgh, United Kingdom December, 2013 The copyright in this thesis is owned by the author. Any quotation from the thesis or use of any of the information contained in it must acknowledge this thesis as the source of the quotation or information. Abstract of the Thesis The benefits of physical activity for adolescent children are well understood. Despite this, within much of the Western World, children fail to achieve the recommended guidelines for physical activity participation, spending too much time on sedentary activities. Thanks to recent progressions in ubiquitous technologies, exergames - exercise video games - have emerged as a potential solution to the problem. By facilitating physical activity, and encouraging behavioural change within an enjoyable and motivating context, exergames have the potential to remove some of the barriers preventing many adolescents from sufficient physical activity participation. There are, however, few studies of exergame systems that have looked at the impact of the system over time. Additionally, many systems are not evaluated within ecologically valid contexts. The result of this is a lack of real understanding on the efficacy of exergame systems and their feasibility as a valid solution. This thesis investigates the design, development, and evaluation of a location- aware exergame for adolescent children: iFitQuest. Through analysis of two pro- longed use school-based evaluations, this research provides evidence on the ability of exergames to facilitate physical activity and reduce sedentary behaviour, when tar- geted at adolescent children within a school context. The results of two evaluations suggest that iFitQuest was enjoyable, motivating, and physically demanding, with the ability to promote physical activity of all intensities in players with a range of attitudes towards physical activity, their own physical activity abilities, and physical activity participation backgrounds. The primary contribution of this thesis is the in- depth evaluation of the exergame user experience. Looking beyond the general success of the system, the experience of individual players was analysed through the lens of Bandura's theory of self-efficacy. Through a mixed-methods case study analysis, self- efficacy was established as an accurate method to explain and understand in-game behaviour, in particular with respect to goal setting and game selection habits. By influencing and moderating the players' motivation, attitude and in-game be- haviour, self-efficacy was established as a useful tool for future exergame practitioners. Guidelines on the application of self-efficacy are provided, with respect to both anal- ysis and design. Additionally, through a naturalistic and prolonged evaluation, a number of logistical and contextual lessons for the evaluation of exergames were es- tablished. In particular, the use of a user-centred design approach for the development of similar systems is validated through a series of design guidelines, which account for the importance and influence of the evaluation context. To my family, without whom, none of this would have been possible. Acknowledgments I am deeply indebted to Dr Judy Robertson, for giving me this opportunity and supporting me throughout the PhD process. Her advice and guidance has helped me become the researcher I am today. Our runs around the Heriot-Watt campus proved to be wonderful therapy for the mind, although I have still not forgiven her for the Notorious Night Run. I am incredibly grateful to the teachers and children who helped throughout the development and evaluation of the iFitQuest system. In particular Susan Stephens, who was instrumental in organising the various events. I am also thankful to have met many great researchers at Heriot-Watt who have touched and influenced my work. Those worth particular mention include Professor Ruth Aylett, Dr Sandy Louchart, and (soon to be Dr) Robert Stewart. I would like to thank Dr Samantha Fawkner and Dr Ailsa Niven for their advice and guidance on promoting physical activity and health behaviour change within an adolescent demographic. I would also like to thank Dr Fawkner for kindly providing the self-efficacy questionnaire used throughout the iFitQuest evaluations and helping with the analysis of the ActiGraph data. I would like to thank my wonderful family for their unwavering love. My wife Meredith has been a rock of support and an ever-present ear for my moans, strife and celebrations. My mother and father, Alison and Peter, have made me the person I am today, and have supported and encouraged me throughout my journey. Meredith and Alison also deserve special mention for helping me proof read this thesis. My brother Stephen has been a great companion who has always shown interest in my endeavours. My extended family and in-laws over the ocean have always been quick to encourage me and show me their love. My dog Jackson also deserves my thanks, for his walks around the woods were the best remedy for a tough day. Finally I would like to thank Heriot-Watt University and SICSA for their support. 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Updated February 2008, November 2008, February 2009, January 2011 Table of Contents 1 Introduction :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: 1 1.1 Children and Physical Activity . 2 1.2 The Potential of Exergames . 3 1.3 Understanding the Exergame Experience . 4 1.4 Summary of Contributions . 6 1.5 Main Research Questions . 7 1.6 Thesis Outline . 8 2 Physical Activity and Children :::::::::::::::::::::: 11 2.1 Children and Physical Activity . 11 2.2 The Importance of Physical Activity . 13 2.3 Facilitating Physical Activity . 15 2.4 Physical Activity and the Intervention Context . 16 2.5 Physical Activity and iFitQuest: Intervention Length . 17 2.6 Physical Activity: A Summary . 19 2.7 The Role of Self-Efficacy in Physical Activity . 19 2.8 Summary . 23 3 Exergames ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: 24 3.1 What is an Exergame? . 24 3.2 Do Exergames Work? . 26 3.2.1 Summary . 29 3.3 Mobile and Pervasive Exergaming . 29 3.4 Exergames for Adolescents . 31 3.4.1 School-Based Exergame Interventions . 33 3.4.2 Summary . 34 3.5 Evaluating Exergames: Longitudinal Evaluation . 34 3.6 Designing Exergames . 37 3.7 Exergames as Persuasive Technology . 39 i 3.8 Summary . 40 4 The Design of iFitQuest :::::::::::::::::::::::::: 42 4.1 iFitQuest . 42 4.2 User-Centred Design . 43 4.3 Overview . 44 4.4 Requirements Gathering . 45 4.4.1 Expert Interview . 46 4.4.2 Focus Group 1 - Gaming Requirements . 48 4.4.3 Focus Group 2 - Exergame Playthrough . 50 4.4.4 Conclusions . 51 4.5 Prototype 1 . 52 4.5.1 Initial Prototype . 52 4.5.2 Design Summary . 56 4.5.3 Prototype 1 End-User Evaluation . 57 4.5.4 Summary . 60 4.6 Prototype 2 . 61 4.6.1 Re-Skinning . 62 4.6.2 Mini-Games 1 & 2 . 62 4.6.3 Mini-Game 3 - Return the Sheep . 63 4.6.4 Mini-Game 4 - Follow the Chicken . 63 4.6.5 Mini-Game 5 - Visit the Fields . 64 4.6.6 Prototype 2 End-User Evaluation . 65 4.6.7 Summary . 69 4.7 Summary & Conclusions . 70 5 iFitQuest :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: 74 5.1 Final Changes . 74 5.1.1 iFitQuest . 74 5.1.2 Mystery Games . 75 5.1.3 Points . 76 ii 5.1.4 Leaderboard . 79 5.1.5 Game Manager . 80 5.1.6 Flexible Environment . 81 5.2 System Overview . 82 5.2.1 Architecture . 86 5.2.2 Hardware . 88 5.2.3 Software . 89 5.3 Design Requirements . 90 5.4 Summary . 93 6 Evaluation 1: 5-Week High School Evaluation :::::::::::: 95 6.1 Methodology . 96 6.1.1 Quantitative Vs. Qualitative . 96 6.1.2 Case Study Approach . 96 6.1.3 A Mixed Methods Approach . 98 6.1.4 Ensuring Validity . 99 6.2 Purpose Revisited . 100 6.3 Method . 101 6.3.1 Data Gathering . 101 6.3.2 Participants . 103 6.3.3 School Profile . 105 6.3.4 Procedure . 105 6.4 Results . 106 6.4.1 Overview . 106 6.4.2 General Experience . 108 6.5 Physical Activity .