Muslim women and the hijab in Britain: contexts and choices. Item Type Thesis or dissertation Authors Mackay, Kathryn Publisher University of Derby Download date 26/09/2021 18:47:39 Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10545/306736 UNIVERSITY OF DERBY MUSLIM WOMEN AND THE HIJAB IN BRITAIN: CONTEXTS AND CHOICES. Kathryn Mary Mackay Doctor of Philosophy 2013 Contents 1 Glossary 5 Preface 7 Abstract 9 Acknowledgements 11 Chapter One: Religious and political context 13 1.1. Introduction 13 1.2. The Qur’anic basis of the hijab 15 1.3. The World Trade Centre attacks September 11th 2001 (9/11) 18 1.4. The War on Terror 20 1.5. The Iraq War 2003 20 1.6. The hijab in French state schools 22 1.7. The London Bombings 7th July 2005 (7/7) 26 1.8. The Jack Straw Controversy 27 1.9. Summary 31 Chapter Two: Literature review. 33 2.1. Introduction 33 2.2. Interpretation of Qur’anic instructions 34 2.3. Feminist arguments/interpretations against veiling 38 2.4. Restrictions on mixing with the opposite sex 44 2.5. Politics of the veil 46 2.6. Empirical research on the hijab in the West prior to 9/11 49 2.7. Impact of 9/11 54 2.8. Conversion 61 2.9. Dress and identity 62 2.10. Veiling as fashion 67 2.11. Summary 73 1 Chapter Three: Religion and Choice 75 3.1. Introduction 75 3.2. Rational Choice Theory 75 3.3. Rational Choice Theory and Religion 78 3.4. Rational Choice Theory and Social Constraints 82 3.5. Family 84 3.6. Lifestyle choices 86 3.7. Habitus 88 3.8. Individualization 90 3.9. The individualization thesis debate 91 3.10. Summary 93 Chapter Four: Methodology 95 4.1. Introduction 95 4.2. Feminist research 96 4.3. Epistemology 99 4.4. My feminist and epistemological stance 103 4.5. Positionality as a female researcher 105 4.6. Methodology 111 4.7. Methods 113 4.7.1. Sampling 114 4.7.2. Access 119 4.7.3. Interviews 122 4.7.4. Data Analysis 128 4.7.5. Ethical considerations 129 4.7.6. The dress of the interviewer 131 4.7.7. Language 133 4.8. Generalizability and validity 134 4.9. Summary 139 2 Chapter Five: Findings 141 5.1. Introduction 141 5.2. Life story so far 142 5.3. Back to the beginning 144 5.4. Daily routine 150 5.5. Rules regarding the hijab 152 5.6. Responses to the hijab 159 5.7. Changes to the use of hijab 166 5.8. Background information 172 5.9. Summary 176 Chapter Six: Themes 179 6.1. Introduction 179 6.2. Religion/religious community 179 6.3. Education 188 6.4. Family and friends 192 6.5. Clothing industry/fashion 201 6.6. 9/11 208 6.7. Cross-cutting themes 213 6.8. Summary 215 Chapter Seven: Analysis and discussion 217 7.1. Introduction 217 7.2. Costs and benefits and the Religious Human Capital approach 218 7.3. Rational Choice Theory and Social Constraints 227 7.4. Family 232 7.5. Lifestyle choices 236 7.6. Habitus 240 7.7. Individualization 242 7.8. The individualization thesis debate 243 7.9. Summary 244 7.10 Conclusion 248 3 References 251 Appendices: Appendix 1 - Sample table – phase 1 263 Appendix 2 - Agenda for semi-structured interviews 265 4 Glossary aya A verse of the Qur’an. burqa A covering of the whole body including the face. dupatta A loose headscarf often worn with a shalwar kameez. Hadith (pl.ahadith) The sayings of the Prophet Muhammad. hijab The fixed headscarf worn by Muslim women. iftar The meal that is eaten after a day’s fasting during Ramadan. ijtihad Independent reasoning used to interpret the rules that are not always evident in the Qur’an. Imam A religious leader or teacher of Islam. jahiliyya The time in Arabia before Islam. jilbab A cloak or long gown. khimar A loose scarf worn by women at the time of Muhammad. mahrem Relatives who you are not allowed to marry. maqramas Black netted headscarves. munafiqun Hypocrites. neo-ijtihad A new interpretation of the rules in the Qur’an carried out by the women themselves. niqab The face veil. sari A long piece of cloth that is wound around the body to make a dress and is usually worn with a fitted top and a petticoat. Part of the cloth is often used to cover the head. shalwar kameez A suit consisting of loose trousers and long shirt or dress. Shi’a Muslims who believe Ali, the Prophet’s cousin and son-in-law, to be his rightful heir. Sunnah The actions and behaviour of the Prophet Muhammad. Sunni The mainstream sect of Islam. surah A chapter of the Qur’an. 5 tafsir Commentary on the Qur’an. Umma The Muslim community 6 Preface I carried out all of the research and work for this investigation and I am responsible for all of the different sections of the submitted thesis. 7 8 Abstract This thesis concerns the contexts and choices associated with the wearing of the hijab in Britain, beginning with the impact of events such as 9/11. For many in the West, the hijab has become perceived as a symbol of Islam and as a result hijab wearing women who were living in Britain were identified as being connected with those who had carried out the 9/11 attacks in the United States. There was evidence from this research that there was an increase in first time hijab wearing, particularly in those between the ages of 25-39, however, 9/11 had not been directly responsible for this increase, but the higher profile of Islam due to the attacks had encouraged the women to find out about the religion for themselves and the rulings that related to them. Sales of the hijab have increased along with a more defined Islamic fashion consciousness and a desire by the women to wear what they regard as Islamic dress. This feminist standpoint research, although carried out by a white, non-Muslim from a middle-class background gave the women the opportunity to talk about their lives and explain the wearing or non-wearing of the hijab. A number of related themes were identified: Religion/religious community; Education; Family and friends; Clothing industry/fashion; and 9/11, although the thread that ran through all of these themes was the notion of choice. The women described wearing or not wearing hijab as their choice, although some had more influence from others. When choice theory was examined in relation to the wearing or non-wearing of the hijab it could be seen that although rational choice theory, lifestyle choices, family, habitus and individualization could tell us something about why the women made the choices they did, it was the interplay between individualization and tradition that gave the most accurate explanation as to why these women were making their choices. These theories did not tell the whole story however, and the conclusion discusses a reinterpretation of the Islamic teachings occurring in Britain with the women interpreting the Qur’an and the religious texts for themselves before arriving at their own conclusions as to what they should be wearing. This reinterpretation is driving the changes in behaviour for many Muslim women in Britain. 9 10 Acknowledgements I would like to express my thanks to all of the women who cannot be named, but who were interviewed as part of this research, and to all of those who acted as gatekeepers. A sincere thanks to: The Fatima Women’s Association; The Westwood and Coldhurst Women’s Association; The Brighton and Hove Muslim Women’s Group; and The Tunbridge Wells Mosque for their kindness in allowing me to visit and interview some of their members. I wish to express my gratitude to Professor Paul Weller and Dr Kristin Aune for their advice and encouragement in the completion of this thesis. A special thank you to my husband Chris, and my children Isabelle and Owen, as I could not have done this without your support. 11 12 Chapter One: Religious and political context 1.1. Introduction The wearing of the hijab (all Islamic terms are to be found in the glossary) and other forms of Islamic dress have become a much discussed and controversial issue since recent world events including the destruction of the World Trade Centre on the 11th September 2001, the Iraq conflict in 2003 and the London bombings on the 7th July 2005. Furthermore, at the end of 2003, and the beginning of 2004, the world was witness to French legislation banning the wearing of the hijab in certain spheres and the discussion and debate that subsequently surrounded it. This research originally set out to identify any changes that may have occurred in the dress of Muslim women living in Britain in light of 9/11, and the other key events that followed, by exploring the social context and explanations relating to the hijab. This study focuses on the wearing of the hijab, and throughout, looks at the reasons why Muslim women in the West, and particularly those who live in Britain choose to cover or not cover their heads. It examines the impact that the above mentioned, major global events may have had on the views and behaviour of some Muslims, and documents any changes that these women may have made to their dress. At the time of the interviews, 9/11 was a very recent event and the debate surrounding the wearing of the hijab was in its infancy, however, it was discovered that this one event had immediate implications for Muslims in Britain, specifically women.