Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar Jawaharlal Nehru in the Discovery of India has written: “Akbar was the most secular ruler in Indian history and if we are to constitute India into secular democratic polity, we shall have to follow the footsteps of Akbar. Vincent Adams Smith has written: “Akbar started from a scratch bur when he died, he left behind a precedent and tradition to be followed. He looked every inch a ruler among the masses. His eyes were as vibrant as the sea showers in sunlight. The moon of Dalhousie looks pale before the Sun of Akbar.” The story of Akbar the great began in 1542 at Amarkot in Sind to Shia mother Hamida Bano Begum when his refugee father was on his way to Persia. Upto 1550, he was brought up by Kamran and Askri. In 1550, He was appointed the governor of Ghazni. In 1551, he was the governor of Punjab. On 24 February 1556, his guide, philosopher and wakil Bairam Khan did his royal coronation at Kalanaur in district Gurdaspur, Punjab after the death of his father’s death. Rise and Fall of Bairam Khan Bairam Khan was Shia by faith. Humayun stated: “There is no such other luminary as comparable to Bairam Khan in the royal court.” Humayun married him to Sultana Begum, the daughter of Gulbadan Begum, the author of Humayun Nama. Bairam Khan captured Delhi and Agra for Humayun. He defeated Hemu in the Second Battle of Panipat. From 1556 to 1560, Bairam Khan captured Kalinjar, Chunar and Kanauj for Akbar. But he became over-ambitious and appointed his Shia comrades to the high offices and inflicted severe punishment on his political adversaries. Thus, Atqa Khail (a group of Sunni nobility led by Maham Anga) launched conspiracy against Bairam Khan. She sent letters to Akbar when he was in Deccan to reach Agra immediately as his cousin Mirza Muhammad Hakim (son of Kamran and the governor of Kabul) was conspiring against him. Akbar reached Agra and asked Bairam Khan to retire from active politics. Bairam Khan agreed to go to Haj but Akbar committed the mistake of sending General Pir Muhammad to accelerate his departure. This provoked Bairam Khan to revolt against the Emperor. Bairam Khan was defeated and was pardoned in view of his previous services for the Mughals. Akbar asked him to stay in Agra but refrain from active politics. Bairam Khan preferred Haj. He was stabbed to death in 1561 at Patan by a Pathan convict in Gujarat. Akbar was filled with sorrow and appointed his son Abdul Rahim in his court. He was one of the nine gems in the court of Akbar. Abdul Rahim was a great Hindi poet. He wrote Rahim Satsai and was honored with the title Khan-i-Khana, the highest honor bestowed upon an individual by the Mughal. Petti-Coat Government: The term Petti-Coat Government was coined by V.A. Smith as prominent Mughal ladies had complete control over the Mughal government. Peti-Coat government was led by Maham Anag and Hamida Bano Begum. Other members of the Atqa Khail were Adham Khan (son of Maham Anag), Pir Muhammad, Shihabuddin Ahmed, Abdullah Uzbek, Munim Khan and Shamshuddin Atqa. After the dismissal of Bairam Khan as Ataliq, Maham Anag nominated Shihabuddin Ahmed as wazir. He was replaced by Abdullah Uzbek, Munim Khan and Shamshuddin Khan Atqa. In 1562, Shamshuddin Atqa was murdered by Adham Khan in the royal palace centre. Akbar reached there and ordered his bodyguards to throw Adham Khan from the roof top. Maham Anag died of shock a few months after her son’s death. Akbar came out of age and as an ambitious young man, ordered Hamida Bano Begum not to interfere in the state affairs. In 1562, he issued three ordinances: 1. No non-Muslim captured in war shall be forced to convert to Islam. 2. No slave captured in war shall be converted to Islam. 3. The forcible converts were given the option to re-convert to their previous faiths. In 1562, on the way to Dargah of Muinuddin Chisti, Akbar was offered matrimonial alliance by Bhar Mal of Amber with his daughter Harkha Bai. This legendary tale is immortalized by Akbar Jodha serial on Zee TV. Amber became the first state to enter into matrimonial alliance with the Mughals. Raja Man Singh and Raja Bhagwan Das were important Mansabdars at the Mughal court. In 1563, Akbar abolished Pilgrim Tax. In 1564, Akbar abolished Jaziya. Badayuni says that Akbar abolished Jaziya in 1589. S.R. Sharma has written: “Akbar laid the foundations of a secular sovereign state for the first time in the history of Islam.” Military Expedition of Akbar: Conquest of Malwa (1562): In 1562, Akbar sent General Pir Muhammad and Adham Khan to capture Malwa. They committed horrible atrocities there. Akbar wanted to investigate the matter but could not take any action due to the influence of Maham Anag. He transferred General Pir Muhammad to Deccan where he fell in the river Narmada and died. Akbar entrusted Malwa expedition to Abdullah Uzbek. Baz Bahadur, the ruler of Malwa accepted the overlordship of Akbar but Rani Roopmati offered stiff resistance and died fighting. Malwa was annexed in 1562. Uzbek Revolt (1564-1567): It was the first important revolt faced by Akbar. Uzbeks were the traditional enemies of the Mughals. Akbar himself led the campaign and after three years of sustained campaigns, the Uzbek rebellion was crushed. The implications of Uzbek rebellion: All revenue reforms of Akbar introduced with the help of his finance minister Muzaffar Khan Turbati fell flat. Mewar Campaign (1562-1599) In 1562, Akbar invaded Mewar ruled by Rana Udai Singh. He entrusted the governance to his generals Fateh Singh (Fatta) and Jayamal and retreated to forests. Akbar laid the siege of Mewar for six years upto 1568. In 1568, Jayamal was supervising repairs of Chittor fort; Akbar glanced at him and ordered his artillery to fire. Jayamal died and in panic the Rajput forces came out of the fort to fight. The Mughal defeated them and entered the fort of Chittor. Akbar ordered a general massacre in Mewar in which more than 30,000 people died. Akbar realized his mistake and in order to appease the Rajputs, he built the statues of Jayamal and Fatta at the entrance of the Agra fort. Rana Udai Singh was succeeded by Rana Pratap. He refused to accept the overlordship of the Mughals. This mutual bitterness led to the battle of Haldighati in 1576. Abul Fazal in Ain-i-Akbari used the word Khanduha and Badayuni in Muntkhib-ut- Tawarikh used the word Gohan for Haldighati. Mughal forces were led by Raja Man Singh. Rana Pratap was defeated and lost his gallant horse Chetak. But he did not lose hope and continued his heroic struggle against the Mughals and recaptured all his lost possessions except Chittor by 1597. Rana Pratap died in 1597 and was succeeded by his son Rana Amar Singh who continued his struggle. In 1597, Akbar sent Prince Salim and Raja Man Singh. But they could not take any decisive action because of their mutual bickering. In 1599, Akbar ordered Raja Man Singh to proceed to Bengal to crush the feudal lords. But he was not able to take decisive action because of Salim’s frequent revolts. Akbar’s Rajput Policy: Akbar’s Rajput policy was shaped by the following factors: 1. He found his close kinsmen and Sunni nobility conspiring against him. 2. In order to counter them, he decided to win over the militant Hindu race of Rajputs. 3. Akbar was a practical statesman who realized that without the active support of the majority Hindu population, he won’t be able to rule India. 4. Akbar’s liberal views were shaped by his Ataliq Bairam Khan and his Shia mother Hamida Bano Begum. They were very liberal in their religious views. 5. His tutor Abdul Latif taught him the policy of Sulh-i-Kul. 6. Sheikh Mubarak and his two sons Abul Fazal and Faizi also shaped Akbar’s liberal ideology. 7. Faizi came to Akbar’s court in 1567, Sheikh Mubarak in 1573 and Abul Fazal in 1574. 8. Akbar entered into matrimonial alliance with the daughter of Raja Bhar Mal in 1562, Kalyan Mal of Bikaner in 1569 and Har Rai of Jaisalmer in 1570. 9. Akbar started celebrating Hindu festivals in the Mughal court. Akbar abolished pilgrim tax in 1563 and abolished Jaziya in 1564 (Abul Fazal) or 1589 (Badayuni). Akbar believed that the Rajputs must be subdued first and then reconciliated. They became the bulwark of the Mughal Empire and consolidated its Empire. The Result of Akbar’s Rajput Policy: 1. The Rajput-Mughal interaction resulted in the great Hindu-Muslim cultural interaction. 2. The Rajputs were great administrators. 3. Akbar was able to suppress the revolts of his kinsmen. 4. He led successful Mughal expedition. Social Reforms: 1. Akbar abolished sati tradition. 2. He introduced total ban on intoxicants except for medicines. 3. The girl’s marriageable age was fixed at 14 years and boy’s marriageable age was fixed at 16 years. 4. He completely banned prostitution. In 1568, Akbar annexed Orissa. In 1569, Akbar laid the foundation of Fatehpur Sikri to honor Sheikh Salimuddin Chisti. From 1570 to 1585, Fatehpur Sikri remained the capital of Mughals. In 1629, Shah Jahan transferred his capital to Delhi. Gujarat and Bengal Campaign In 1572, Akbar led Gujarat campaign against Muzaffar Shah. He accepted Akbar’s sovereignty but when Akbar returned, Muzaffar Khan revolted again. Another military campaign was sent in 1573.