Steven Graham Wilson PhD thesis Factors shaping the conservation of the critically endangered Javan Rhinoceros Rhinoceros sondaicus Steven Graham Wilson Bachelor of Applied Science (Parks, Recreation & Heritage) Master of Environmental Management A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at The University of Queensland in 2021 School of Biological Sciences Steven Graham Wilson PhD thesis Dedication This thesis is dedicated to my late brother Stewart 30/04/1965 - 14/10/2019. For ongoing love and support through my thesis journey, you always believed in me, awesome thanks for all the good times and many laughs. I miss you man. Steven Graham Wilson PhD thesis Thesis Abstract The overall objective of this PhD is to conduct innovative research that contributes to improving the long-term survival of the rare and critically endangered Javan rhino, Rhinoceros sondaicus. A single small population of 74 Javan rhinos (October 2020) currently remain globally, all individuals located in a single region on the western tip of Java, Indonesia, in Ujung Kulon National Park. This thesis comprises seven chapters: Chapter 1 introduces the background and applied context for the thesis within the broader literature on the factors shaping the conservation of the Javan rhino. Understanding local community awareness and the implications for the species’ management is critical for the development of future conservation actions for a single population species such as the Javan rhino, as examined in Chapter 2. The Ujung Kulon National Park’s eastern boundary adjoins agricultural lands and resides in Banten Province, one of Indonesia’s most heavily populated regions, which results in continuous human pressure on remaining habitat, wildlife, and protected areas. The eastern edge of the national park is surrounded by 19 villages, each has a traditional dependency on national park resources. During the years 2015 and 2016, I interviewed 76 local villagers, including each of the 19 village leaders and three local community members from each village. Based on identified gaps including community members’ limited knowledge of National Park regulations, boundaries and conservation initiatives, key recommendations have been instigated, including establishment of community reference groups in each village to drive consultation with authorities and to influence communities through improved education and awareness of conservation management objectives. In Chapter 3, I aim to examine Javan rhino frontline management to determine the approaches used and attitudes of frontline staff to rhino management and implications for future management. Substantial resources are being invested in Javan rhino management, yet it is very challenging to study and monitor the species in the field, and it is therefore difficult to assess whether past and current management actions are successful. In order to understand frontline management, I interviewed 36 Javan rhino conservation staff, including almost all the rhino protection unit staff and frontline national park staff. Overall, staff perceptions of the current management actions were positive, yet staff raised multiple challenges that remain inherent to the survival of the small persisting rhino population. These included ongoing anthropogenic threats ranging from habitat encroachment from human population growth to transfer of disease from domesticated stock (mainly water buffalo Bubalus bubalis). i Steven Graham Wilson PhD thesis In Chapter 4, I aimed to research the impact of the arenga palm Arenga obtusifolia on Javan rhino habitat and foraging. National park and conservation authorities suggest that available Javan rhino habitat is compromised by two major factors, human encroachment, and the dominance of the native arenga palm. Arenga palm now dominates the rainforest canopy in many areas of the park and reduces available rhino foraging by limiting the growth of rhino food plants. To examine the impact of arenga palms on rhino habitat and foraging, arenga palms were manually cleared across 15 x one ha experimental sites by local community members and I monitored these sites over two years (2016 - 2018) for the impact of palm control, plant response and post clearing visitation frequency of rhino. Palm control resulted in increased diversity and abundance of rhino food plants, and rapid visitation to cleared sites by rhinos replacing areas initially covered by monoculture palm. The findings suggest for the first time that rhino habitat manipulation and clearing of arenga palm in selected forest patches is a viable management technique to increase foraging for rhinos. In Chapter 5, I examine the role wallows play in Javan rhino behaviour and ecology. All members of the family Rhinocerotidae have a requirement to wallow in mud or water to protect their skin from sun damage, remove ectoparasites and for thermoregulation. Javan rhino need to wallow regularly throughout the year. Access to wallows is therefore a critical element of Javan rhino habitat. I found, spatially recorded, and analysed the characteristics of 35 wallows in the eastern Gunung Honje section of the park. I analysed 137 remote camera trap videos (recorded between 2011 and 2015) and 255 videos (recorded in 2016) and discovered that wallows are important communication hubs for Javan rhinos. I identified and categorised eight behavioural patterns recorded at and near wallows from 68 videos taken between (2011-2015) in the 30,000ha peninsula area of Ujung Kulon. This increased our knowledge of Javan rhino vocalisation via 55 recordings comprising 157 individual vocalisations taken at and near wallows, identifying seven vocalisation descriptors with accompanying sonograms. The results tested and supported the hypothesis that Javan rhino utilise wallows not only for thermoregulatory function, but also as sites of interaction and communication among rhinos. This understanding of the role of wallows in rhino communication is important towards future reintroduction efforts of rhinos. In Chapter 6, I examine the social behaviour and communication of Javan rhino using camera trap videos. Direct observation of Javan rhino is extremely difficult due to its rarity and remote rainforest habitat, consequently our knowledge of its social behaviour and communication remains limited. To increase our understanding, I analysed 392 remote camera trap videos (2011- 2016) in this study. ii Steven Graham Wilson PhD thesis In the final Chapter 7, I summarise the findings by chapter of the thesis and discuss them with reference to the literature and the contributions to knowledge. Collectively this work improves the current understanding of the factors shaping the conservation of Javan rhino by increasing awareness of frontline management, knowledge of Javan rhino ecology, social and communication behaviour, and the management of key threats such as the management of the invasive arenga palm. Declaration by author This thesis is composed of my original work and contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference has been made in the text. I have clearly stated the contribution by others to multi-authored papers that I have included in my thesis. I have clearly stated the contribution of others to my thesis, including statistical assistance, survey design, data analysis, significant technical procedures, professional editorial advice, and any other original research work used or reported in my thesis. The content of my thesis is the result of work I have carried out since the commencement of my research higher degree candidature and does not include a substantial part of work that has been submitted to qualify for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution. I have clearly stated which parts of my thesis, if any, have been submitted to qualify for another award. I acknowledge that an electronic copy of my thesis must be lodged with the University Library and, subject to the policy and procedures of The University of Queensland, the thesis be made available for research and study in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968 unless a period of embargo has been approved by the Dean of the Graduate School. I acknowledge that copyright of all material contained in my thesis resides with the copyright holder(s) of that material. Where appropriate I have obtained copyright permission from the copyright holder to reproduce material in this thesis. Steven Graham Wilson iii Steven Graham Wilson PhD thesis Publications during candidature Peer reviewed papers Wilson, S.G., Biggs, D. & Kark, S. (2021). Protecting an icon: Javan rhino frontline management and conservation. Oryx, August/September 2021. Wilson, S.G., Hockings, G., Deretic, J.M. & Kark, S. (2020). More than just mud: The importance of wallows to Javan rhino ecology and behaviour. Pachyderm Vol. 61, August/September 2020. Conference abstracts Wilson, SG, Hockings, G, Wood, JM, & Kark, S. (2018). Understanding an icon: learning the language of Javan rhinoceros. Oral presentation (presented by SW) at the International Eco Acoustics Congress in Brisbane 24th - 28th June 2018. Publications included in this thesis 1. Wilson, S.G., Biggs, D. & Kark, S. (2021). Protecting an icon: Javan rhino frontline management and conservation. Oryx, August/September. Incorporated as Chapter 3. Contributor Statement of contribution Author - Steve Wilson (Candidate) Wrote paper (75%), collected and analysed data (10%) Author - Duan Biggs Edited paper