Neural Networks Language Models Philipp Koehn 1 October 2020 Philipp Koehn Machine Translation: Neural Networks 1 October 2020 N-Gram Backoff Language Model 1 • Previously, we approximated p(W ) = p(w1; w2; :::; wn) • ... by applying the chain rule X p(W ) = p(wijw1; :::; wi−1) i • ... and limiting the history (Markov order) p(wijw1; :::; wi−1) ' p(wijwi−4; wi−3; wi−2; wi−1) • Each p(wijwi−4; wi−3; wi−2; wi−1) may not have enough statistics to estimate ! we back off to p(wijwi−3; wi−2; wi−1), p(wijwi−2; wi−1), etc., all the way to p(wi) – exact details of backing off get complicated — ”interpolated Kneser-Ney” Philipp Koehn Machine Translation: Neural Networks 1 October 2020 Refinements 2 • A whole family of back-off schemes • Skip-n gram models that may back off to p(wijwi−2) • Class-based models p(C(wi)jC(wi−4);C(wi−3);C(wi−2);C(wi−1)) ) We are wrestling here with – using as much relevant evidence as possible – pooling evidence between words Philipp Koehn Machine Translation: Neural Networks 1 October 2020 First Sketch 3 wi Softmax Output Word h FF Hidden Layer wi-4 wi-3 wi-2 wi-1 History Philipp Koehn Machine Translation: Neural Networks 1 October 2020 Representing Words 4 • Words are represented with a one-hot vector, e.g., – dog = (0,0,0,0,1,0,0,0,0,....) – cat = (0,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,0,....) – eat = (0,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,....) • That’s a large vector! • Remedies – limit to, say, 20,000 most frequent words, rest are OTHER p – place words in n classes, so each word is represented by ∗ 1 class label ∗ 1 word in class label Philipp Koehn Machine Translation: Neural Networks 1 October 2020 Word Classes for Two-Hot Representations 5 • WordNet classes • Brown clusters • Frequency binning – sort words by frequency – place them in order into classes – each class has same token count ! very frequent words have their own class ! rare words share class with many other words • Anything goes: assign words randomly to classes Philipp Koehn Machine Translation: Neural Networks 1 October 2020 6 word embeddings Philipp Koehn Machine Translation: Neural Networks 1 October 2020 Add a Hidden Layer 7 wi Softmax Output Word h FF Hidden Layer Ew Embed Embed Embed Embed Embedding wi-4 wi-3 wi-2 wi-1 History • Map each word first into a lower-dimensional real-valued space • Shared weight matrix E Philipp Koehn Machine Translation: Neural Networks 1 October 2020 Details (Bengio et al., 2003) 8 • Add direct connections from embedding layer to output layer • Activation functions – input!embedding: none – embedding!hidden: tanh – hidden!output: softmax • Training – loop through the entire corpus – update between predicted probabilities and 1-hot vector for output word Philipp Koehn Machine Translation: Neural Networks 1 October 2020 Word Embeddings 9 Word Embedding C • By-product: embedding of word into continuous space • Similar contexts ! similar embedding • Recall: distributional semantics Philipp Koehn Machine Translation: Neural Networks 1 October 2020 Word Embeddings 10 Philipp Koehn Machine Translation: Neural Networks 1 October 2020 Word Embeddings 11 Philipp Koehn Machine Translation: Neural Networks 1 October 2020 Are Word Embeddings Magic? 12 • Morphosyntactic regularities (Mikolov et al., 2013) – adjectives base form vs. comparative, e.g., good, better – nouns singular vs. plural, e.g., year, years – verbs present tense vs. past tense, e.g., see, saw • Semantic regularities – clothing is to shirt as dish is to bowl – evaluated on human judgment data of semantic similarities Philipp Koehn Machine Translation: Neural Networks 1 October 2020 13 recurrent neural networks Philipp Koehn Machine Translation: Neural Networks 1 October 2020 Recurrent Neural Networks 14 Softmax Output Word tanh Hidden Layer 0 Embed Embedding w1 History • Start: predict second word from first • Mystery layer with nodes all with value 1 Philipp Koehn Machine Translation: Neural Networks 1 October 2020 Recurrent Neural Networks 15 Softmax Softmax Output Word tanh copy tanh Hidden Layer 0 Embed Embed Embedding w1 w2 History Philipp Koehn Machine Translation: Neural Networks 1 October 2020 Recurrent Neural Networks 16 Softmax Softmax Softmax Output Word tanh copy tanh copy tanh Hidden Layer 0 Embed Embed Embed Embedding w1 w2 w3 History Philipp Koehn Machine Translation: Neural Networks 1 October 2020 Training 17 Cost yt Softmax Output Word ht 0 RNN Hidden Layer Ewt Embed Embedding wt w1 History • Process first training example • Update weights with back-propagation Philipp Koehn Machine Translation: Neural Networks 1 October 2020 Training 18 Cost yt Softmax Output Word ht RNN RNN Hidden Layer Ewt Embed Embedding wt w2 History • Process second training example • Update weights with back-propagation • And so on... • But: no feedback to previous history Philipp Koehn Machine Translation: Neural Networks 1 October 2020 Back-Propagation Through Time 19 Cost Cost Cost yt Softmax Softmax Softmax Output Word ht 0 RNN RNN RNN Hidden Layer Ewt Embed Embed Embed Embedding wt w1 w2 w3 History • After processing a few training examples, update through the unfolded recurrent neural network Philipp Koehn Machine Translation: Neural Networks 1 October 2020 Back-Propagation Through Time 20 • Carry out back-propagation though time (BPTT) after each training example – 5 time steps seems to be sufficient – network learns to store information for more than 5 time steps • Or: update in mini-batches – process 10-20 training examples – update backwards through all examples – removes need for multiple steps for each training example Philipp Koehn Machine Translation: Neural Networks 1 October 2020 21 long short term memory Philipp Koehn Machine Translation: Neural Networks 1 October 2020 Vanishing Gradients 22 • Error is propagated to previous steps • Updates consider – prediction at that time step – impact on future time steps • Vanishing gradient: propagated error disappears Philipp Koehn Machine Translation: Neural Networks 1 October 2020 Recent vs. Early History 23 • Hidden layer plays double duty – memory of the network – continuous space representation used to predict output words • Sometimes only recent context important After much economic progress over the years, the country ! has • Sometimes much earlier context important The country which has made much economic progress over the years still ! has Philipp Koehn Machine Translation: Neural Networks 1 October 2020 Long Short Term Memory (LSTM) 24 • Design quite elaborate, although not very complicated to use • Basic building block: LSTM cell – similar to a node in a hidden layer – but: has a explicit memory state • Output and memory state change depends on gates – input gate: how much new input changes memory state – forget gate: how much of prior memory state is retained – output gate: how strongly memory state is passed on to next layer. • Gates can be not just be open (1) and closed (0), but slightly ajar (e.g., 0.2) Philipp Koehn Machine Translation: Neural Networks 1 October 2020 LSTM Cell 25 LSTM Layer Time t-1 m ⊗ forget gate Preceding Layer gate output X i ⊕ ⊗ gate input Next Layer m ⊗ o h Y LSTM Layer Time t Philipp Koehn Machine Translation: Neural Networks 1 October 2020 LSTM Cell (Math) 26 • Memory and output values at time step t t t t−1 memory = gateinput × input + gateforget × memory t t output = gateoutput × memory • Hidden node value ht passed on to next layer applies activation function f ht = f(outputt) • Input computed as input to recurrent neural network node t t t – given node values for prior layer ~x = (x1; :::; xX) ~ t−1 t−1 t−1 – given values for hidden layer from previous time step h = (h1 ; :::; hH ) – input value is combination of matrix multiplication with weights wx and wh and activation function g X H ! t X x t X h t−1 input = g wi xi + wi hi i=1 i=1 Philipp Koehn Machine Translation: Neural Networks 1 October 2020 Values for Gates 27 • Gates are very important • How do we compute their value? ! with a neural network layer! • For each gate a 2 (input; forget; output) – weight matrix W xa to consider node values in previous layer ~xt – weight matrix W ha to consider hidden layer ~ht−1 at previous time step t−1 – weight matrix W ma to consider memory at previous time step memory~ – activation function h X H H ! X xa t X ha t−1 X ma t−1 gatea = h wi xi + wi hi + wi memoryi i=1 i=1 i=1 Philipp Koehn Machine Translation: Neural Networks 1 October 2020 Training 28 • LSTM are trained the same way as recurrent neural networks • Back-propagation through time • This looks all very complex, but: – all the operations are still based on ∗ matrix multiplications ∗ differentiable activation functions ! we can compute gradients for objective function with respect to all parameters ! we can compute update functions Philipp Koehn Machine Translation: Neural Networks 1 October 2020 What is the Point? 29 (from Tran, Bisazza, Monz, 2016) • Each node has memory memoryi independent from current output hi i i • Memory may be carried through unchanged (gateinput = 0, gatememory = 1) ) can remember important features over long time span (capture long distance dependencies) Philipp Koehn Machine Translation: Neural Networks 1 October 2020 Visualizing Individual Cells 30 Karpathy et al. (2015): ”Visualizing and Understanding Recurrent Networks” Philipp Koehn Machine Translation: Neural Networks 1 October 2020 Visualizing Individual Cells 31 Philipp Koehn Machine Translation: Neural Networks 1 October 2020 Gated Recurrent Unit (GRU) 32 GRU Layer Time t-1 h update gate reset gate ⊗ Next Layer Preceding Layer h Y X x ⊕ GRU Layer Time t Philipp