TRUSTY TEENS: READING AMERICAN ADOLESCENCE THROUGH THE SUPERHERO SIDEKICK Lauren R. O’Connor A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate College of Bowling Green State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY May 2019 Committee: Jeffrey A. Brown, Advisor Jong-Kwan Lee Graduate Faculty Representative William Albertini Jolie A. Sheffer © 2019 Lauren R. O’Connor All Rights Reserved iii ABSTRACT Jeffrey Brown, Advisor Though the field of comics studies has seen rapid expansion in recent decades, and numerous characters from this subset of American literature have received pointed attention, the field has largely ignored the portrayal of adolescent figures. Yet the portrayal of teenagers in comic books reflects the primary readership of the medium, especially in the popular genre of superhero comics, teaching important if informal lessons to consumers about their present and future roles in society. This dissertation analyzes the most enduring adolescent figure in American comics and one of the most widely-known adolescent figures in all of American literature: Robin, sidekick to Batman. Through close reading and textual analysis of comics featuring Robin, I find that depictions of Robin reinforce an image of idealized maturity inextricably linked to white heterosexual masculinity, while simultaneously shoring up the youthful or childish connotations of queerness, non-whiteness, and femininity. The ways in which comic creators have depicted adolescence intersecting with other social identities reveals an investment in establishing a sense of heroic inheritance for white male teen characters and a pattern of exclusion for non-white or female adolescent characters. This dissertation marks an intervention in the field of comics studies, which often focuses on adult-oriented comics and adult figures while ignoring or eschewing the largely juvenile roots of the medium. Instead, I lean into the youthful associations of superhero comics and argue that these depictions provide insight into what mainstream adult culture believes adolescence is and ought to be, and in turn what adulthood is and who is granted its rights and privileges. iv For Brian v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am incredibly fortunate to have many wonderful people to thank for their support throughout my work this project. My dissertation committee chairperson, Dr. Jeffrey Brown, has pushed me to think in new ways, never settle for my first (several) ideas, and given me the tools to conduct meaningful, deep research. Dr. Jolie Sheffer has challenged me to be a better writer and more organized scholar, all the while providing warmth and encouragement. Dr. William Albertini has asked me many excellent questions and suggested new points of view to explore throughout this process. I would also like to thank my graduate representative, Dr. Jake Lee, for his insights as a scholar outside of the humanities; he has helped me to think beyond my own field and experiences. I maintain that I truly hit the dissertation committee jackpot. Aside from the committee members named on this document, there are several other folks at BGSU without whom this project would never have made it this far. Dr. Jean Gerard helped me identify key theoretical texts and arguments in the field of adolescent studies. Dr. Andrew Schocket and Rebekah Patterson generously provided administrative and emotional support throughout my program. I am deeply grateful for the Dissertation Research Fellowship Award granted to me by the BGSU American Culture Studies Department; this fellowship gave me the time and flexibility to pursue new and important lines of inquiry in my final year of research. My friends and classmates have also shaped me and this project in ways I could never have imagined on my own. Elena Aponte provided essential feedback on my writing and quickly became a fast friend. Tessa Pyles likewise offered thoughtful criticism of my ideas and my work, and I am thankful for our many shared moments of levity. Steven Bellavia guided me through vi my first year in graduate school with patience and warmth, and he has been a precious friend ever since. I want to thank my parents, Robert and Regina, for encouraging me to pursue my interests, speak my mind, and read, read, read. They have nurtured me and loved me my entire life, and I am eternally grateful. My sister and best friend, Meaghan, has kept my spirits up, made me laugh, and been a total inspiration throughout this process. I also want to thank my godfather, Jinx, for giving me my first comic book ever, and several of my former teachers, Bill and Colleen Hiles, Jason Moralee, and Chuck Springwood, without whose encouragement I would never have begun this adventure. Finally, I want to thank my best friend and my partner in all things, Brian Trainor, though I will never have the words to express just how grateful I am for his presence in my life. It was only with his thoughtful criticism, informal but essential research suggestions, and unending support that this project came to be (this is where he says that is not true, but trust me, it is). More than that, I would not be the person I am today without his love, his time, or his selfless encouragement. Brian, you are the best thing that ever happened to me. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 1 Studying Adolescent Representation in Comics ........................................................ 4 Specialized Terms ...................................................................................................... 17 Chapter Outlines ........................................................................................................ 21 CHAPTER I. THE SECRET ORIGINS OF ADOLESCENCE ........................................... 26 The “Deployment” of Adolescence ........................................................................... 27 The Victorian Era and the Beginnings of Childhood................................................. 30 Searching for the Child .................................................................................. 30 Race and Childhood ....................................................................................... 33 Missing Links: Fin-de-Siècle America and the Invention of Adolescence ............... 35 Recapitulation Theory: Seeding the Idealized Adult Identity ....................... 37 Lifespan Development Theories .................................................................... 40 Age-Based Grouping and the Birth of the Youth Market .............................. 43 Measuring Growth: Defining Adolescence in the Interwar Years............................. 45 Surveilling Adolescence through Secondary Education ................................ 48 Standardized Testing: “Mental Age” as a Function of Class and Race ......... 50 Adolescence Reaches Popular Culture .......................................................... 52 Coming into Focus: American Teenagers in the Mid-Century .................................. 54 Erik Erikson and the Adolescent Identity ...................................................... 56 The Persistence of the Teen Sidekick ........................................................................ 60 vii CHAPTER II. ROBIN, NIGHTWING, BATMAN: THE SHIFTING SEXUALITY OF DICK GRAYSON ............................................................................................................................ 63 The Abnormality of Adolescent Sexuality ................................................................ 65 “The Sensational Character Find of 1940!”: Dick Grayson as Robin ....................... 70 Robin’s Innocence: The “Too Little” End of the Spectrum .......................... 73 The Anti-Comics Crusade.............................................................................. 75 Heteronormalizing Robin: Toeing the Line of “Too Much” ......................... 78 Nightwing: Dick Grayson Becomes a (Straight) Man ............................................... 82 Replacement Robins and Nightwing’s Relative Maturity ............................. 85 Progressing Towards Idealized Adulthood: Dick Grayson as Batman ...................... 88 “Batman: Prodigal,” Sans Son ....................................................................... 89 Batman Needs Robin: Dick Grayson’s Parenting of Damian Wayne ........... 91 CHAPTER III. THE SIDEKICK’S SIDEKICK: BATMAN, ROBIN, AND THE ERASURE OF BLACK ADOLESCENCE .............................................................................................. 99 A Robin of a Different Color ..................................................................................... 101 Duke Thomas: Mature Menace? ................................................................................ 104 Arrested Development: Duke Thomas and the Forced Dependence of Black Americans .................................................................................................................. 110 The Robin War’s Two Fronts .................................................................................... 116 After Robin War: A Signal in the Batcave ................................................................ 123 CHAPTER IV. GIRLS WONDER: YOUNG FEMALE ROBINS IN THE MODERN AGE OF COMICS ................................................................................................................................ 127 Youth and Femininity: A Lasting