Women and Society in the Romanian Principalities 1750-1850 Angela Jianu BA (Bucharest), MA (Bradford) Submitted for the degree of PhD University of York Department of History May2003 1 Abstract This thesis is an investigation into the history of women in the Romanian Principalities (today Romania) in the period 1750 to 1850, a crucial time of political and social transformation which was to turn Romania into a modern society. The two introductory chapters aim to outline the international, political and social dimensions of these processes of change, by highlighting the situation of the Principalities as provinces dominated by a weakening Ottoman Empire, in the context of Russian and Austrian expansionism. Under such geopolitical pressures, social issues such as the rights of women, the emancipation of serfs and Gypsy slaves, agrarian reform and the improvement of education were placed low on the agenda for social reform until the 1848 revolutions. Nevertheless, there were social changes before this period in which women's contribution proved significant. Part One focuses upon legal issues such as dowry provisions and the marriage market, access to divorce and re-marriage, as well as upon the ways in which property rights affected families. These chapters show women using and challenging legal practices in order to protect themselves and their children, thereby triggering a gradual process of legal change reflected in the period's law codes. Part Two explores the roles of women in processes of cultural change, showing, for example, how women's freedom of choice in matters of fashion and consumption affected the ways in which the Romanians re-defined themselves as 'Europeans' in the face of Ottoman occupation and Orthodox conservatism. Also discussed are the tentative steps women took, beginning with their earliest appearance as midwives and actresses, towards better educational and professional opportunities. The final chapter offers a view of women in the period's Greek-language literature and in the earliest known memoir by a Romanian woman, and provides a summary of the factors affecting the lives of Romanian women in the period 1750 - 1850 as they moved towards a more European identity. Finally, I offer a few signposts for future research, in a field which is still largely experimental in terms of methodology and conceptual frameworks. 2 Acknowledgements I am grateful to the Department of History, University of York, for funding this research project. My supervisors, Dr. Jane Rendall and Dr. Geoff Cubitt, have been expert guides and I am indebted to them for their encouragement and patience. Library staff at the University of York, the 'Nicolae Iorga' Historical Research Institute in Bucharest, the National Library and the Romanian Academy Library have been most supportive in my search for often elusive archival and secondary material. I owe a great debt to Dr.Violeta Barbu, Dr.Anca Popescu, Dr.Adrian-Silvan Ionescu, Ms. Cristina Ghifulescu and Mr. George Lazar, all at the 'N. Iorga' Institute in Bucharest, as well as to Dr. Florea Ioncioaia and Prof. Veniamin Ciobanu from the 'AD. Xenopol' Institute in Ia~i for sharing with me the fruit of their long years of research, and for the support and encouragement they gave me in various ways. Dr. Lia Brad-Chisacof from the Institute of South-East European Studies (Bucharest) revealed to me the importance of Greek culture in the Principalities. Dr. Wendy Bracewell and Dr. Alex Drace-Francis from the School of Slavonic and East European Studies (UCL) have kindly given me the opportunity to present some of my research at the seminars of the Centre for South-East European Studies. I am grateful to Paul Bembridge, FRSA, for his continuous and selfless support. My friends, Oana Lungescu and Joana Zirra, have offered support and hospitality and have kept alive the memories of our time together as undergraduates of the University of Bucharest. To my former professors, the late Professor I. Fischer and Professor Mihai Nichita from Bucharest University I owe a model of dedication and learning that cannot be surpassed. 3 Contents Page Abstract 1 Acknowledgements 2 Contents 3 Explanatory Notes 6 Abbreviations 7 Map of Wallachia and Moldavia Chapter One: Introduction Preliminary Observations 8 Women's History: East and West 8 Early Romanian Historians of Women 11 Sources, Aims, Objectives: 'Looking for the Romanian Woman' 15 Periodisation, Europe, Modernity 19 Modernisation 22 Europeanisation 24 Final Observations 28 Chapter Two: The Boyars: Landowners, Dignitaries, Power Elites 30 Origins and Development of the Boyar Class 32 The Structures ofPower and Government The Prince 35 The Assemblies 36 The Courts ofJustice 37 The Great Boyars: Roles, Activities, Continuity 38 Natives, Greeks, Phanariots: the Men ofthe Land ('Pamfntenii') and the 'Others' 42 Introduction to Part One 48 4 Chapter Three: 'It is a Christian and Lawful Thing to Marry ... ' - Virginity, Dowries and Marriage 51 Dowries: Givers and Recipients 56 Dowries: Form and Content 59 Who Could Marry? 61 Virginity and the Price of Honour 62 Conclusions 71 Chapter Four: Divorce and the Crisis of the Family 74 Divorce and the Orthodox Church 81 Reasons for Divorce 82 A Woman's Place 95 Conclusions 97 Chapter Five: Women, Dowries and Family Property 100 Dowries, Wives and Children 105 Family Stories 111 Conclusions 116 Introduction to Part Two 118 The Travellers 119 Illustrations Chapter Six: Women, Fashion and Europeanisation 125 Travellers, Exoticism and 'Turquerie' 127 Clothes and Hygiene 130 The Pleasures and Dangers of Westernization 132 Europeanisation and the Voices of Tradition 136 Trade, Consumerism and Europeanisation 140 Conclusions 144 Chapter Seven: 'Good Wives and Tender Mothers' Women, Education and Social Motherhood 146 Education in the Eighteenth Century: boys' and girls' schools 147 5 Early Evidence ofFemale Literacy 150 Transylvanian Schools for Boyar Girls 152 Education in Private Boarding Schools 154 The Dangers of 'Pension' Education 155 Women and Medical Knowledge 158 The Uses of Women's Education 159 The Beginnings of State Education for Girls 161 Women in the Theatre 163 Women as Translators 164 Ermiona Quinet and Maria Rosetti 166 Conclusions 168 Chapter Eight: Women, Households and Gypsy Slaves 171 Women at Home 171 The Ladies of the House and their Gypsy Slaves 175 Chapter Nine: Men about Women, Women about Men: Textual Representations of Gender 186 Greek Literature in the Romanian Principalities: the Language ofMisogyny 186 The Memoirs ofElena Hartulari: the Language ofEmotions 189 Conclusions 196 Appendix One: The Wedding: a Show to Remember 201 Appendix Two: The Dowry of a Boyar's Daughter 204 Appendix Three: A Boyar's Funeral Expenses 206 Appendix Four: Boyar Titles and State Offices 208 Glossary 211 Bibliography 212 6 Explanatory Notes This thesis is focused on the geographic space of the Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia as they e~isted prior to their union of 1859 (see Map). Transylvania, although comprising a large proportion of ethnic Romanian population, was part of the Austro­ Hungarian Empire until 1918 and is not included. The name 'Romania', designating the territories and population of the two Principalities, is used anachronistically for ease of reference, as the name was not used before 1862. The names used in the period studied (1750-1850) were 'Valahia' and 'Muntenia' for Wallachia and 'Moldova' for Moldavia. The term 'Moldo-Wallachia' was used as well, especially by French speakers. I have used 'Romanian Principalities' and 'Danubian Principalities' interchangeably. Place names and names of persons follow in general the Romanian spelling. Thus, I am using 'Mavrocordat' rather than the transliterated Greek 'Maurokordhatos' and 'Caragea' rather than 'Karatzas'. But I have used, for instance, 'Bucharest', 'Wallachia' and 'Moldavia', as they have been traditionally used by English-language speakers. The capital of Moldavia is designated by its name 'la~i' rather than by the Frenchified version 'Jassy'. This is not a study based on quantitative analysis. Statistical information on population, economic growth, currency and rates of exchange is often difficult to obtain and unreliable and, once gathered, difficult to unify, centralise and interpret in a satisfactory way. Although I am dealing with consumption, imports, incomes and dowries, the currencies used in the two Principalities were too varied to allow me to establish clear­ cut correspondences. I have, therefore, used the designations 'lei', 'thaler' or 'piastres', and have given comparative values of items wherever possible. Lastly, the titles of secondary literature in Romanian are also given in English translation, wherever the meaning is not obvious. Only the place of publication is mentioned as a rule, with the exception of recent publications in Romanian published by small or obscure publishers. Boyar titles and foreign words are listed in two separate appendices. 7 Abbreviations Analele Academiei Romane = AAR Documente privind istoria Romaniei = DIR Documenta Romaniae Historica = DRH Revue des etudes sud est-europeennes = RESEE Revue des etudes roumaines = RER Revista de istorie sociala = RIS ~ Military border t RUSSIA o. The Balkans in 1833 (from Stevan K. Pavlowitch, A Hist01y ofth e Balkans, Longman, 1999, p. 352) Chapter One: Introduction Preliminary Observations Gender studies, the history of women, of men, and that of the family are now established disciplines in the West, with enviable bodies of scholarly literature,