THE MAKING OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND INNOVATION POLICY: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS AS NARRATIVES, 1945-2005 Benoît GODIN 2009 Centre Urbanisation Culture Société Institut national de la recherche scientifique 385, rue Sherbrooke Est Montréal (Québec) H2X 1E3 Telephone : 514-499-4074 Facsimile : 514-499-4065 www.ucs.inrs.ca TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ........................................................................... 1 Frameworks as Narratives ............................................................................... 4 The Logic (Rhetoric?) of Narratives .............................................................. 14 The Policy (Political?) Process ...................................................................... 21 PART I ............................................................................................ 25 CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................ 25 The Linear Model of Innovation: The Historical Construction of an Analytical Framework ........................ 25 A Political Rhetoric ....................................................................................... 28 An Industrial Perspective .............................................................................. 36 A Statistical Classification ............................................................................ 40 Economists Appropriate the Model ............................................................... 52 Conclusion .................................................................................................... 61 CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................... 67 The Making of Statistical Standards: The OECD Frascati Manual and the Accounting Framework ........................... 67 National Accounting ..................................................................................... 69 The Frascati Manual ...................................................................................... 80 Accounting for Science ....................................................................... 81 What Accounting Measures? .............................................................. 91 Accounting and Science Policy ................................................................... 103 The Efficiency of Research ......................................................................... 113 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 116 CHAPTER THREE ..................................................................... 123 Science and Efficiency: the Input-Output Framework ............. 123 The Production Function ............................................................................. 127 The Economics of Science .......................................................................... 138 An Accounting Framework ......................................................................... 144 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 148 CHAPTER FOUR ....................................................................... 155 Economic Growth, Productivity and the New Economy .......... 155 Integrating Science and Technology into the Econometric Equation .......... 156 Studying Growth and Productivity at the OECD ......................................... 161 The New Economy ...................................................................................... 171 Synthesizing Academic Works ......................................................... 175 Internationalizing the Statistics ......................................................... 176 Developing a Visual Rhetoric ........................................................... 178 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 179 CHAPTER FIVE ......................................................................... 183 Competitiveness and Trade in High-Technology ...................... 183 A Very Basic Ratio ..................................................................................... 185 Variations on a Theme ................................................................................ 188 Research Intensity ............................................................................. 189 Technology Intensity ........................................................................ 193 High Technology ......................................................................................... 198 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 207 CHAPTER SIX ............................................................................ 213 The Political Agenda on Globalization, its Framework and Measurement ...................................................................... 213 The Globalization Framework ..................................................................... 215 The Globalization of Technology ................................................................ 221 Measuring the Internationalization of R&D ...................................... 223 Renewed Interest in the Technological Balance of Payments ........... 225 Other Impacts of Globalization on S&T Statistics ............................ 226 What Did the Numbers Say? ....................................................................... 228 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 234 PART II ........................................................................................ 237 CHAPTER SEVEN ..................................................................... 237 National Innovation System: the System Approach in Historical Perspective .................................................... 237 National Innovation System at OECD ......................................................... 239 The System Approach ................................................................................. 244 Measuring the Research System .................................................................. 256 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 259 CHAPTER EIGHT ...................................................................... 265 ii The Making of Science, Technology…, 2009 The Knowledge-Based Economy: Conceptual Framework or Buzzword? .......................................................................... 265 Machlup’s Construction .............................................................................. 267 Measuring Knowledge ...................................................................... 269 The Message ..................................................................................... 274 The Knowledge-Based Economy at the OECD ........................................... 276 Defining the Knowledge-Based Economy ........................................ 279 Measuring the Knowledge-Based Economy ..................................... 281 An Umbrella-Concept ................................................................................. 285 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 290 CHAPTER NINE ......................................................................... 295 The Information Economy: The History of a Framework Through its Measurement ................................................. 295 The Economics of Information .................................................................... 299 The Ad Hoc Group on Scientific and Technical Information (1962) ................................................................. 301 The Ad Hoc Group on Information Policy (1965) ............................ 303 The Economics of Information Panel (1965) .................................... 305 The Information Economy .......................................................................... 319 The Working Party on Information, Computer, and Communications Policy (1976) ....................................... 322 The Group of Experts on ICC Statistics (1982) ................................ 329 The Information Society .............................................................................. 342 The Working Party on Economic Implications of Information Technologies (1988) .............................................................. 348 The Working Party on Indicators for the Information Society (1999)355 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 363 CONCLUSION ............................................................................ 367 Appendix 1.................................................................................... 375 Labels Used for Modern Societal Transformations, 1950-1984 ............................................................................ 375 Appendix 2.................................................................................... 379 Methodological Documents from the Directorate for Science, Technology and Industry (OECD) ................................... 379 Appendix 3.................................................................................... 380 Appendix 4.................................................................................... 381 The Making of Science, Technology…, 2009 iii