EXPANSION OF PROSTITUTION END DEMAND POLICIES AND RESISTANCE IN THE GLOBAL WEST: A COMPARATIVE DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF CANADA, ENGLAND, AND NORTHERN IRELAND A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE TEXAS WOMAN'S UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIAL WORK HOLLY POTTLE, M.A. DENTON, TEXAS AUGUST 2016 DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to the lives lost in prostitution due to violence and hatred. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thank you to my dissertation committee members- Drs. James Williams, Jessica Gullion, and Mark Kessler. Each provided guidance in the dissertation process I greatly appreciate. Dr. Williams chaired the committee and was very helpful with teaching the framework for creating the dissertation and providing feedback on drafts throughout the process. I also appreciate how accessible he was. We met various times during the dissertation process to discuss how it was coming along. Dr. Gullion’s background in qualitative methodology was helpful in this process. In particular, I was uncertain about what type of coding software to use and she suggested NVivo- which was accessible at Texas Woman’s University and very helpful in terms of organizing information which I referred to repeatedly in the process of writing my dissertation. Also, I appreciate how Dr. Kessler took the time to not only read through the entire draft of my dissertation proposal, but write comments on it that guided me in creating the final dissertation. Additionally, Dr. Kessler provided resources on Foucault’s concepts of law and power that provided helpful background information for this dissertation. Furthermore, I wish to thank the family, friends, and teachers I have had over the years. The guidance and encouragement many of them provided on my life’s path to get to this point is greatly appreciated. Considering that transcripts from legislative hearings and debates are the main data source for this dissertation, I specifically acknowledge the legislatures of England, Northern Ireland, and Canada for making these accessible online through their websites. Additionally, I acknowledge the many people who testified during the legislative hearings in these transcripts. iv ABSTRACT HOLLY POTTLE EXPANSION OF PROSTITUTION END DEMAND POLICIES AND RESISTANCE IN THE GLOBAL WEST: A COMPARATIVE DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF CANADA, ENGLAND, AND NORTHERN IRELAND AUGUST 2016 The development of prostitution policies continues to be a dynamic issue globally with new developments continually occurring. This dissertation integrates social constructionism and Michel Foucault’s theory of discourse to study how conflicting interests construct the main issues in prostitution public policy disputes and power dynamics involved. Specifically, the study focuses on disputes between multiple conflicting interests in legislative hearings and debates in England, Northern Ireland, and Canada on proposed end demand legislation- which refers to legislation with the stated emphasis on criminalizing the sex buyers rather than the sex providers in prostitution. Transcripts from legislative hearings and debates are the main data sources analyzed using NVivo software for qualitative coding and organization. This discourse analysis found that across the nations included, supporters and opponents of end demand legislation differed to an extent in their constructions of the main issues in prostitution policy disputes-including the meanings they attach to concepts including consent, victimization, harm reduction, and gender equality. These differing constructions shaped their conflicting positions on prostitution policies. The opponents of end demand tended to support non-criminalized systems of prostitution. Results indicate that interest groups’ power in shaping prostitution policies was based primarily on how well their ideologies aligned with those of powerful political parties. The vast majority of people testifying to legislatures on conflicting v sides specified neither current nor past sex trade or sex industry experience. Of the testifiers who did, more identified as former sex workers or survivors of prostitution than as current sex workers. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page DEDICATION ........................................................................................................................ iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................... iv ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................. v Chapters I: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 1 Canada Prostitution Policies .......................................................................... 2 Northern Ireland Prostitution Policies ........................................................... 4 England Prostitution Policies ......................................................................... 4 Problem Statement ......................................................................................... 5 Rationale ...................................................................................................... 11 Plan of Work ................................................................................................ 13 II: LITERATURE REVIEW.................................................................................... 14 Foucault’s Theory of Discourse ................................................................... 14 Subjugated Knowledge ................................................................... 14 Power ............................................................................................ 15 Discourse and Law ......................................................................... 16 Social Construction Theory ........................................................................ 17 Genealogy of Prostitution End Demand Policies ........................................ 20 Genealogy of Prostitution Policies in Canada ................................ 24 Genealogy of Prostitution Policies in Northern Ireland ................. 29 Genealogy of Prostitution Policies in England .............................. 34 Feminist Ideological Influences on Prostitution Policies ............................. 38 Gendered Language in Prostitution Discourse .............................. 41 Research Questions ...................................................................................... 44 III. DATA AND METHODS .................................................................................. 45 Overview of Discourse Analysis ................................................................. 45 Data .............................................................................................................. 46 Data Collection ............................................................................. 48 Data Analysis ................................................................................ 49 Applying Foucault’s Theory to Discourse Analysis ..................................... 51 Constructions of Relevant Terminology ....................................................... 51 Personal Reflection ....................................................................................... 53 vii IV. RESULTS ........................................................................................................... 56 Research Question One ................................................................................. 56 Testifiers for and Against Prostitution End Demand Legislation ............................................................... 57 Organizations Supporting End Demand Prostitution Policies ................................................. 59 Organizations Opposing Prostitution End Demand Policies ......... 64 Populations Divided ....................................................................... 64 Disciplinary Power......................................................................... 66 Constructions of the Main Issues ................................................... 66 Gender Equality ............................................................................. 67 Choice and Consent ........................................................................ 72 Victims ........................................................................................... 81 Harm Reduction ............................................................................. 98 Research Question One Conclusion ............................................. 114 Research Question Two .............................................................................. 115 Research Question Two Conclusion ............................................ 123 Research Question Three ............................................................................ 124 Power Dynamics in the Passage of and Resistance to Prostitution End Demand Legislation ...................................... 124 Research Question Three Conclusion .......................................... 130 Research Question Four ............................................................................. 131 Using the Law to Promote Unstated Agendas ............................. 131 Unintended Consequences ........................................................... 133 Power of Law to Send a Message ...............................................