Literary Sources of Ancient Indian History History is derived from the word historia, meaning “inquiry, Yajur Veda ie knowledge acquired by investigation”. l It is a collection of rituals for performing different Herodotus is known as the ‘Father of History’ because sacrifices. he was the first of the classical writers to organise his writings l It has been divided into two parts Krishna (Black) Yajur in a logical order and also attempted to verify the veracity of Veda (commentary in prose) and Shukla (White) Yajur what he was writing. Veda (sacrificial formulae and rituals). The ancient Indians knew their country as Bharatavarsha l Famous Upanishads of Yajur Veda (the land of Bharata). It was said to be a part of a larger unit Brihdaranyaka Upanishad called Jambu-dvipa (the continent of the Jambu tree). Katha Upanishad Vedas l Taittiriya Brahmana — Related with Krishna Yajur Veda. l The hymns of the Yajur Veda were recited by the priest Among the literary sources of Ancient Indian history, the known as Aahwariyu. foremost are the four Vedas, namely Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda. Sama Veda l The term Veda was derived from the Sanskrit word vid, l The science of music originated from the Sama Veda. which means ‘to know’. l It was sung by a particular type of priests known as l Vedas are also called Apaurusheya (not made by man) Udgatari. and Nitya (eternal). l It is known as the Book of Chants. l Besides, the Vedas are also known as Shruti, meaning Famous Upanishad of the Sama Veda “to hear”. These have been passed on from one K l Chhandogya Upanishad (describes Lord Krishna) generation to another through oral transmission. l l Vedas are basically hymns and prayers offered to God Kena Upanishad by different groups of people. Atharva Veda l They are also called Samhitas. l It is a collection of charms, magic and spells. Rig Veda l The term Atharva means magical formula. l l It is a collection of hymns. The hymns of the Atharva Veda are meant for warding l It is the oldest of all the Vedas. off evils and demons, winning over friends and gaining l It contains 1017 Suktas. material success. l l It contains 11 Balakhilya, thus making the total no. of No Brahmanas belong to the Atharva Veda. KUNDANSuktas 1028. Upanishad of the Atharva Veda l It contains 10 Mandalas. l Mundaka Upanishad, wherein Satyamev Jayate has been l The oldest Mandalas II, III, IV, V, VI and VII are known as mentioned. family books on account of their composition being described to various families of sages. Veda Upveda Content l Mandala IX is completely devoted to the Vedic God Soma. Rig Veda Ayurveda Medicine/Life l Mandala IX contains the famous Purushsukta hymns Yajur Veda Dhanurveda Archery/Warfare that explain the origin of the four Varnas (Chaturvarna Sam Veda Gandharvaveda Music, Dance, Poetry theory — Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra). Atharva Veda Shilpaveda Engineering/Architecture l Gayatri mantra is the most sacred hymn of the Rig Veda. It is mentioned in the third Mandala and is written by Other Literary Sources Viswamitra. This mantra is addressed to the Sun. l Famous Upanishads of the Rig Veda Brahmanas Aitareya Upanishad l They are elaborate prose texts. Kaushitaki Upanishad l Contain explanation of the hymns, prayers, charms and l The hymns of the Rig Veda were recited by the priest sacrificial formulae. known as Hotri. l Satapatha Brahmana is the most famous Brahmana. History l 1 Aranyakas l They are 108 in number. l Upanishads deal mainly with Atma, Paramatma and l The literal meaning of Aranyaka is forest. salvation. l They are also known as forest books. l They deal with mysticism, moral values and philosophical Vedangas doctrines. l The most famous Aranyaka is Vrihadaranyaka. The Vedangas were considered important for understanding the Vedas but they are not included in Vedic literature. Upanishads They are six in number: i) Siksha Pronunciation l The term Upanishad literally means “to sit down near ii) Chhandas Metre (Pingal wrote Chhanda shastra) someone to learn”. iii) Vyakarana Grammar (Panini wrote Astadhyayi) l They are also known as Vedanta, meaning “the end of iv) Nirukta Etymology (Yaksha wrote Nirukta) the Vedas”, for they denote the last phase of the Vedic v) Jyotisha Astronomy period and reveal the ultimate aim of the Vedas. vi) Kalpa Sacrificial rituals Indus Valley Civilization (2350-1750 BC) This Bronze Age Civilization is also called Harappan because Gulf of Cambay, Kalibangan, which means black bangles, in it was discovered in 1921 at the modern site of Harappa situated northern Rajasthan, and Banawali, which is situated in Hissar in the province of West Punjab in Pakistan. The discovery district in Haryana. was made by Sir John Marshall, Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Modern technique of Carbon-14 dating has been SahniK and Madho Sarup Vats. employed to calculate the date of the Indus Valley Civilization. It extended from Jammu in the north to the Naramada Harappan seals, which have been obtained from estuary in the south, and from the Makran coast of Baluchistan Mesopotamia, provide additional help. in the west to Meerut in the north-east. The area formed a The largest Indus Valley Civilization site is Mohenjo- triangle and accounted for about 1,299,600 square kilometres. daro. The smallest site is Allahdino. The largest sites in India Nearly 1500 Harappan sites are known so far in the Indian are Dholavira and Rakhigarhi. The three nucleus sites are sub-continent. Of these, the two most important cities were Mohenjo-daro, Harappa and Dholavira. The number of sites Harappa in Punjab and Mohenjo-daro (literally the mound of which are considered as cities is six. the dead) in Sindh, both forming parts of Pakistan. Situated The Indus Valley Civilization was probably ruled by the at a distance of 483 kilometres, they were linked together by merchant class. the Indus. Note: The maximum number of sites were explored by SR KUNDANOther cities are Chanhudaro, about 130 km south of Rao in Gujarat (190 sites). At present there are over 350 Mohenjo-daro in Sindh, Lothal in Gujarat at the head of the sites which have been excavated. Important Harappan Sites Sites Associated rivers Year of Discovery Discoverer (a) Harappa Ravi 1921 DR Sahni (b) Mohenjo-daro Indus 1922 RD Banerjee (c) Chanhudaro Indus 1925 MG Majumdar (d) Kalibangan Ghaggar 1953 AN Ghosh (e) Ropar -------- 1953 Talwar and Bisht (f) Lothal Bhogwa 1957 SR Rao (g) Suktagender Dasak 1962 Orell Stien (h) Surkatoda -------- 1964 JP Joshi (i) Banawali Saraswati 1973 RS Bisht (j) Dholavira -------- 1967/1991 Joshi/Bisht 2 l History Important Sites Banawali l A tiger seal was found at Banawali. Harappa l The most extensively used metal in Indus Valley l In the citadel of Harappa, six granaries were found. Civilization was pure copper (unalloyed copper). l Each granary measured 15.23 × 6.03 metres and lay within a few metres of the river bank. Other sites l Harappa also shows two-roomed barracks. l Amri: Situated in the Sindh region on the banks of he l The cemetery R37, containing 57 burials, is located at river Indus; founded by MG Majumdar in 1929. Harappa. l Surakotada: Situated in Gujarat; founded by Jagat Pati Joshi in 1964. Mohenjo-daro l Sutkagendor: Situated along the Makran coast in l The most important public place of Mohenjo-daro seems Baluchistan. Founded by Aurel Stein in 1927. to be the Great Bath, comprising the tank which is l Kot Diji: Situated in the Sindh region along the banks of situated in the citadel mound. It measures 11.88 × 7.01 the river Indus. metres and 2.43 metres deep. l Rangpur: Situated in Gujarat along the river Madar. l In Mohenjo-daro the largest building is the Great Founded in 1931 by MS Vats. Granary, which is 45.71 metres long and 15.23 metres wide. Area-Wise Distribution of l A stupa, a college hall, a hammam, assembly halls, a bronze statue of dancing girl and two bronze swords Settlements were the other structures found at Mohenjo-daro. l Sind: Mohenjo-daro, Amri, Kot Diji, Tarkai, Quila, Sukkur, l The maximum number of bronze figures have been found Allahdino, Chanhudaro, Rohri, Ali Murad, Jhukar. in Mohenjo-daro. l Baluchistan: Mehragarh, Kulli, Levan, Dabarkot, Balakot. l The limestone sculpture of a seated male priest was l Afghanistan: Mundigak, Shortugai Kfound at Mohenjo-daro. l West Punjab: Harappa, Ganeriwala Note: Maximum number of seals have been found in l Gujarat: Dholavira, Lothal, Surkotada, Bhagalrav, Mohenjo-daro (57%). The second maximum is at Rangpur, Rojadi, Desalpur Harappa (36%). l Rajasthan: Kalibangan, Siswal, Bara, Hulas, Bhagwanpura Chanhudaro l Uttar Pradesh: Alamgirpur, Hulas, Mandi l Pottery inkpots and writing tablets (leafs) were found at l Punjab: Ropar, Sarai Khola Chanhudaro. l Chanhudaro had no citadel. Agricultural Practices Kalibangan l Wheat and barley were the most important crops of Indus KUNDANValley Civilization. l Fire altars have been discovered at Kalibangan. l Other crops: Peas, linseed, mustard, cotton, dates. There l Black bangles were found here. is no evidence of sugarcane. Rice was produced only in l A house floor containing the design of intersecting circles Gujarat. was found at Kalibangan. l Ploughed fields were found in Kalibangan. Town Planning and Structures l The lower city has been laid out in a grid pattern of streets at Kalibangan. l The towns were based on grid pattern. Streets and lanes cutting across one another at right angles divide the city Lothal into a number of rectangular blocks. l An atta chakki (grinding stone) was discovered at Lothal.