The Threat of Small Things: Patterns of Repression and Mobilization against Micro-Sized Groups in Indonesia by Jessica Soedirgo A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy, Graduate Department of Political Science University of Toronto © Copyright by Jessica Soedirgo 2020 The Threat of Small Things: Patterns of Repression and Mobilization against Micro-sized Groups in Indonesia Jessica Soedirgo Doctor of Philosophy Department of Political Science University of Toronto 2020 Abstract Why do very small groups become targets of mobilization and repression? Given their economic and political insignificance, most theories of ethnic and religious conflict expect groups that are less than 1 percent of the population—what I call micro-sized groups—to be ignored. Yet, micro-sized groups like the Jehovah’s Witnesses in Eastern Europe and the Baha’i in Iran have been targets of high levels of state repression and collective mobilization. I argue that the threat of micro-sized groups is linked to fears about group boundaries in flux. When micro-sized groups challenge the institutions, routines, and practices that form the foundations of group belonging through the marking of public space (“visible constitutive threat”), it is seen as a danger to the larger group’s continued existence. Micro-sized groups thus become seen as a perceived threat to the larger ethnic, religious, or national group when: 1) they present a visible constitutive threat; and 2) political entrepreneurs are incentivized to amplify these visible constitutive threats for their own interests. Using archival data, a geo-coded events dataset, and over 135 interviews collected over 17 months of fieldwork, I develop my argument through a study of the Ahmadiyah sect in ii Indonesia. I show that Ahmadis were a constitutive threat to Muslims in Indonesia because their practices challenged those that allowed a diverse people to belong to a single category. However, Ahmadis were only seen as threatening when these constitutive challenges were publicly visible. When electoral reforms increased the relevance of local clientelist networks, political entrepreneurs were incentivized to exploit and amplify the Ahmadiyah threat. Rates of anti- Ahmadiyah activity consequently multiplied. By identifying why and how micro-sized groups come to be seen as threats, my work challenges longstanding assumptions about the necessary material dimensions of threat. It instead suggests that threat construction and perception is not just driven by concerns around access to resources, but is shaped by a group’s public visibility. Broadly, understanding how visible constitutive threats operate can shed light on political phenomena that appear to be costly, inefficient, and irrational. Finally, my work speaks to the burgeoning literature linking clientelism to conflict. iii Acknowledgments In the process of writing a dissertation, one incurs many debts of gratitude. I am no exception to this rule. While the process of writing this dissertation was longer and more difficult that I ever imagined, it has been a deeply rewarding experience due to the many people who selflessly supported me along the way. I am thankful, first and foremost, to the members of my dissertation for their unfailing support throughout all these years. I came to the University of Toronto to work with Jacques Bertrand, whose first book opened my eyes to the possibility of studying conflict in Indonesia. Not only was Jacques a tremendous scholar, I found him to be a generous and trustworthy mentor. With a deft combination of constructive criticism and steadfast encouragement, he helped me to find my academic voice and challenged me to trust myself as a scholar. I will always be grateful for the confidence that he placed in my abilities as a scholar and I have grown so much as a researcher, writer, and teacher because of his investment in me. I am also incredibly lucky to have counted Ruth Marshall, Edward Schatz, and the late Lee Ann Fujii as members of my committee. Throughout the dissertation writing process, Ruth always read my drafts with remarkable care. She encouraged me to read broadly across disciplines, prompting important lines of inquiry. I am especially grateful for all the times where she walked me through periods of self-doubt with much needed levity. Ed joined my committee in the late stages of my dissertation, but I am so grateful he did. His incisive feedback has shaped this project in important ways, prompting me to think more deeply about the broader implications of my work. Ed has also been truly generous with his time, his reassurance, and his encouragement, for which I am so appreciative. Finally, I also owe a great debt to Lee Ann, who made an indelible impact on me as a scholar and as a person. Lee Ann was an exceptional listener, an incredible thinker, and a fierce advocate. Some of my best memories in graduate school were learning from and venting with Lee Ann over coffees and dinners. While she never read this dissertation in full, her intellectual influence on the final product is undeniable. I also would like to thank my internal reviewer, Courtney Jung, and my external reviewer, Ed Aspinall, for their careful and thoughtful reading of my dissertation. I was buoyed iv by their praise and grateful by their kind critiques, which helped me identify solutions for pivotal weaknesses in the argument. Their interventions will shape future iterations of this project and it will be stronger for it. I am very grateful for the graduate students, faculty, and staff at the Department of Political Science and the Centre for Southeast Asian Studies at the University of Toronto. I would especially like to acknowledge Nhung Tran, whose generosity is evidenced by her mentorship of someone completely outside her department. I am grateful for her honesty, wit, and wisdom. Carolynn Branton, Louis Tentsos, and Mary Alice Bailey guided me through the bureaucratic red tape with skill, good humour, and patience. My time at the University of Toronto was enriched by the friends I have made through this program. Shelly Bajaj, Janis Yi- Chun Chien, Neekoo Collett, Marie Gagne, Anika Ganness, Aarie Glas, Emily Hertzman, Carmen Ho, Jean Lachapelle, Lukas Ley, Steve Loleski, Marion Laurence, Heather Millar, Jen McCann, Andrew McDougall, Luke Melchiorre, Lama Mourad, Abouzar Nasirzadeh, Milena Pandy, Michael Pelz, Irene Poetranto, Alesha Porisky, Alexandre Paquin-Pelletier, Jelena Popovic, Jerry Sabin, Nico Saldias, Emily Scott, Abe Singer, Tammara Soma, Paul Thomas, Lahoma Thomas, Hamish van der Ven, Mark Winward, and Sarah Rich-Zendel all made, at one time or another, this journey more memorable, enjoyable, and fulfilling. A special thanks to Isabelle Cote and Ethel Tungohan, whose constant encouragement and wisdom helped me muddle through the program. Over the years, I have been very fortunate to have found welcoming homes in Southeast Asia and Interpretivist Methods circles. I have been very fortunate to have received incredible feedback from many outstanding scholars of Southeast Asia. I thank Ward Berenschot, Greg Fealy, Kikue Hamayotsu, Allen Hicken, Rachel Jacobs, Sana Jaffrey, Diana Kim, Eric Kuhonta, Evan Laksmana, Amy Liu, Eddy Malesky, Jeremy Menchik, Mary Anne Mendoza, Kai Ostwald, Tom Pepinsky, Joel Selway, Dan Slater, Paul Schuler, Yuhki Tajima, Risa Toha, Gerry van Klinken, Alex Arfianto and Wei-Ting Yen for their help and encouragement throughout the years. I have also benefitted from conversations with Peri Schwartz-Shea, Dvora Yanow and Nick Rush Smith on methods and fieldwork. v This dissertation would have been impossible without the generosity of researchers, interlocutors, and participants in Indonesia. My greatest debt is to the 135 people who took time out of the daily rhythms of their lives to talk to me—often about moments that were deeply painful, tinged with shame, or filled with regret. I thank them for allowing me to document their stories. I have made a sincere effort to handle their stories with care and hope that this feeling is shared by those whose stories are reflected in these pages. Numerous individuals in Indonesia helped me move this project forward wisely and patiently. They include Andreas Harsono, Ali Munhanif, Dadi Darmadi, Ismatu Ropi, Ayang Utriza Yakin, Ihsan Ali-Fauzi, Uwes Fatoni, Kustini Kosasih, Sayidul Kohar, Rakeeman Jumaan, Wawan Gunawan, and Mohammad Afdillah. The Centre for the Study of Islam and Society at Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta were my gracious academic host, providing a welcome place to debrief and work through a plethora of fieldwork challenges. I also owe a great debt to my research assistants, Maya Nuraini, Rully Edsapani, Syahar Banu and Rintis Mulya, Ibnu Budiman, and Ela Persi, who all impressed me with their ability to handle the difficult tasks of logistics, cultural translation, and data collection with great skill. The emotional highs and lows of fieldwork would have been significantly more difficult to manage without the presence of extended family and friends in Indonesia. I thank Rudy Haposan, Prijana and Rohani Gunawan, Sonny and Arminta Therik, Anita Sutjipto, and Shelly Febriani for their hospitality. My greatest hosts were the Handalis and Soedirgos in Indonesia. A special thanks to Benjamin, Ai and Kara Handali for hosting me in Bintaro so often and letting me come over for dinner whenever I was feeling lonely or overwhelmed during my stint in Jakarta. Samuel, Febe, Melody and Paul Handali also provided a welcome respite during my many weeks of language training in Jogjakarta. My grandma, Eliana Handali, and May Handali allowed me to invade their home for several months in Bandung. I thank them both for enduring my comings and goings with patience. I also thank my grandmother for inspiring me with her independence and courage. At 19, my grandmother sailed alone from Makassar to Jakarta to make a new life, only bringing with her a trunk and a phone number.