1 "How did the ideals of State Buddhism inspire the creation of Art?" Win Myat Aung Programme Officer, SEAMEO CHAT 2 Introduction "Religion prospers when the King prefers", is used to say in Burmese history. Indeed, it is the duty of king to support and promote the religion. This tradition is based on the concept of Dhamarmaraja. Many ancient kings regarded themselves as Dhamarmaraja and try to legitimize their rules and King Asoka (ca. 273-232 BC) of India during the Mauryan dynasty is most famous one. Kings of Myanmar is no exception. In this essay, the main focus is the development of Theravada Buddhism and its impact on the building of religious monuments during the reigns of King Anawrathar (ca. 1044-1077 AD) and King Kyansitthar (ca. 1084-1113 AD). This period is regarded as the Golden Age of Pagan and with the ardent support of kings, many religious monuments appeared. Artists and architects of this period could display their best or ideal art in building of those religious monuments. In other words, it is the sponsorship of state that paves the way for the development of ideal art in the country. This amount of construction never happens in history of Burma during such a period of time. This essay is divided into three sections, (1) Development of Theravada Buddhism as State Religion in Pagan, (2) Religious Activities of King Kyansitthar and finally (3) Selected Religious Monuments during the reigns of King Anawrathar and King Kyansitthar. (A) Development of Thaeravada Buddhism as State Religion in Pagan According to the Burmese Chronicles, Pagan was found in 1st century AD. The Glass Palace Chronicle records that Pagan region was settled as early as 107 AD. It was comprised of 19 adjacent Pyu villages. The most famous early ruler was Pyusawhti who was son of a sun spirit and a snake princess. However, there is no reliable historical and archaeological finding to prove it. The first recorded ruler at Pagan is Anawrahta. He established Pagan based on agro-based economic policy on controlling the rice producing regions in Kyaukse, 150 kilometres northeast of Pagan and Minbu, 110 kilometres south of Pagan. (Stadtner , 2005, p. 23) Moreover, after the conquest of Thaton, he could also open up maritime trade with other areas in the region especially with India and Sri Lanka. Those relations have great impact on the 3 development of religious art in Pagan. Pagan, during the reign of King Anwrathar, rapidly developed and prospered. Religions in pre-Anawrathar Pagan was complex. We can trace the practices of both Mahayana and Brahmanism there. As John Guy pointed out that there were traces of Mahayana practices in making the images of Bodhisattva in clay votive tablets in Pagan. It is because of the important theological development of worshiping the Bodhisattva Avalokiteshara and in locally it was known as Lokanatha. (Guy 2002, p. 27) Moreover, there is substantial epigraphical and physical evidence of strong Mahayana and Brahmanical practices prior to King Anawrathar's reign, but most of them are over looked by scholars ( Galloway 2002, p. 45). Even Thaeravada Buddhism was introduced; such beliefs and practices still existed. In King Kyansithar's palace inscription, not only Buddhist rites, but also Hindu rituals were performed at the ceremony of laying foundation stone for the new palace. In fact, Pagan is a place of transition where the practice of Mahayana, Thaeravada and Brahmanism met. However, with the conquest of Thaton in 1057 AD, a new spiritual value was introduced and its transformed Pagan to more Thaeravada Buddhism based society. This new era started during the reign of Anawrathar, however, gained momentum during the reign of King Kyansitthar. ( Bautze-Picron 2003, p. 3) So that we can assume that although Buddhism occurs in Burma early in the first millennium, the first appearance of the distinct Burmese style and the oldest Buddhist structural remains coincide with the Pagan period. In Robert E. Fisher's words, the assumption of the throne by King Anawrathar began the unbroken dominance of Buddhism and although Mahayana and Tantric practices did continue, the ultimate triumph belonged to the Theravada. Ananda temple which was built during the reign of King Kyansitthar could be viewed as the first indication of the shift to the Theravada, although influence from the adjacent Pala kingdom ensured continued Mahayana activity. (Fisher 2005, p. 183) Another important reason of King Anawrathar and King Kyansitthar's effort to promote religion was based on the traditional concept of the king as Champion of Buddhism which based on Indian models that originate with the first Buddhist emperor, and unifier of India, King Asoka. Like King Asoka, they viewed themselves as 4 Cakkavatti or Universal Monarch. Another concept was they regard themselves as Dhamarmaraja, a king who power is based on the accumulation of merit of past existence. Finally, there was a concept of Sangaraja, a monk king who is the embodiment of total scare and temporal power. (Strachan 1989, p. 11) It is also related with the concept of esoteric Buddhism. According to Davidson, "the central and defining metaphor for mature esoteric Buddhism is that of an individual assuming kingship and exercising dominion. Thus the understanding of such terms as tantra in Buddhist India would invoke, first and foremost, the idea of hierarchical power acquired and exercised through a combination of ritual and metaphysical means. Based on this power, the varieties of understanding and of personal relationships become subsumed to the purpose of the person metaphorically becoming the overlord (rajadhiraja) or the universal ruler (cakravartin). (Davidson 2002, p. 121)" These conceptions of kingships were an integral part of contemporary statecraft, and to prove the validity of such title and appellations, a king was required to build stupas and temples. Kings together with the people build numerous monuments decorated with marvelous religious art are undeniable evidence at Pagan. Donating temples, stupas or monasteries were considered good works that accumulated merit for specific religious aims that hinged on the concept of future rebirths (Stadtner, 2005, p. 38) Moreover, the merit accumulated by royal temple building activities was part of the national interest. Temple building secured the release of the king's subjects as well as the king himself. The king was often style as a bodhisattva, a future Buddha: incarnate in this world to assist mankind in their quest for salvation. (Strachan 1989, p. 10) In building religious monuments, Pagan gets the legacy of religious art from Pyu which was much influenced by the India. There still exit the traces of Indian influence on the remains in cities of Pyu. When Pyu fell to Nancho in AD 832-5, there was a 5 power vacuum and Burman stepped in not only their political power, but also their culture. It is no surprise that the early Pagan temple type is derived from the early brick temples of the Pyu capital of Shri Kshetra, such as Be-be and Lei- myet-hna temples. The architecture of those temples such as radiating arches and a voussoir type brickwork are found in Pagan too. (Strachan 1989, p. 9) Another significant fact is, though Mahayana Buddhism assumed to be tolerated at Pagan as we can see many examples of Mahayana elements in Pagan art and architecture, the dominant religious movement was Theravada Buddhism. However, Pagan Theravada Buddhism took some elements of Mahayana, and then adapted such elements to suit their Theravada context. Thus, as Paul Strachan pointed out, the religious art of pagan is a mixture of Mahayana and Thaeravada. In other word, it is something like Mahayana temple forms and designs, and even practices, were applied to magnify the rational of the orthodox Theravara religion and state. (Strachan 1989, p. 10) The style of religious art transformed to more distinctly Burmese artistic style during the time of King Kyansittar. It is corresponds to a period when Buddhism was taking on a particularly Burmese form. The building of Ananda temple is significant example. It is the brain child of Kyansittar and he oversaw the building of it. The dominance of the Ananda temple even today can lead us to believe that it embodies the contemporary ideals of Buddhist thoughts during the times of its construction. The depictions of the Jataka stories on tiles decorating the exterior were excellence. (Galloway 2002, p. 48) Since King Kyansitthar's time, Burmese Buddhism has consolidated as a Theravada tradition, and the iconography has become standardized and far less variable. (Galloway 2002, pp.51-52) (B) Religious Activities of King Kyansitthar King Kyansitthar is very important for the development of state religion in Pagan. If King Anawrathar is regarded as the one who planted the seed of Theravada Buddhism in Pagan, King Kyansitthar is the one who nature and garden it. During his reign, Burmese Buddhism has consolidated as a Theravada tradition, and many religious monuments had been built. Among them, Ananda Temple is the most 6 significant. According to the old Burmese inscription of Pagan period, Kyansitthar was known as Hti-Hlaing Min or King of Hti-Hlaing. There are differences on placing where Hti-Hlaing is, but Professor G. H. Luce assumed it is near Kyuk-se. Because he thaught that though King Kyansitthar is a Burman, he loved Mons, and wrote old Mon like a master. He must have been brought up in a Mon environment and that point to Kyaukse. (Luce, April 1966, p. 54) There is also controversial about his parents. Some Burmese Chronicles said he was the son of King Anawrathar and the daughter of the King of Vesali. But there is no concrete evidence about it. Anyway, Kyansitthar played very important role in the unifying campaigns of King Anawrathar and became a right hand man for him.