ECOTOURISM & HUMAN - BEAR RELATIONS Ecotourism and Human-Bear Relations in Ontario: Working for Multispecies Respect and Economic Sustainability By Victoria Readings A thesis paper submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Critical Sociology Faculty of Graduate Studies, Brock University St. Catharines, Ontario © Victoria Readings, 2017 ECOTOURISM & HUMAN - BEAR RELATIONS ii Abstract Relations between northern Ontario’s human communities and black bears have often been violent, and hunting is promoted for economic and “safety” reasons. The Ontario spring bear hunt was previously banned but was recently reinstated, compounding concerns about human-bear conflict and bear management. Today, both human-bear conflict and the stagnation of the northern economy continue, despite increased killing of black bears in the spring hunting season. This thesis considers alternatives to the hunting of bears. Specifically, it assesses bear viewing programs and the added benefits of collaborative environmental agreements and accreditation programs. I explore the potential of these alternative programs to address human-bear conflict, to benefit local settler and indigenous communities, and to reduce resource exploitation in northern Ontario. The thesis is driven by two research questions: (i) what ecotourism policies, strategies, and programs are the most viable for Ontario? (ii) Which policies or programs offer the most potential for fostering solidarity within and across species, as well as economic, social, political, and environmental benefits for northern Ontario communities? I consider these questions by utilizing a combination of targeted, semi-structured interviews and a multispecies reimagining of an Intersectionality-Based Policy Analysis (IBPA) framework. Three industry specialists were interviewed in order to interrogate the policy benefits and limitations of the Great Bear Rainforest Agreement, as well as bear viewing programs within the McNeil River State Game Sanctuary, Khutzeymateen Grizzly Bear Sanctuary, and the Great Bear Rainforest. I argue that these programs offer important lessons and models that should be utilized and imitated in northern Ontario in ECOTOURISM & HUMAN - BEAR RELATIONS iii order to transform interspecies relations and mitigate ongoing conflict. The results confirm the educational, cultural, and economic value and importance of guided bear viewing and accompanying habitat protection. This study also reveals areas of possibility and incentive for locales seeking to transition into ecotourism. Keywords: Human-bear relations, Ontario, bear viewing, ecotourism, humane jobs ECOTOURISM & HUMAN - BEAR RELATIONS iv Acknowledgments This work has been made possible with the incredible guidance and support of several faculty members, friends, and participants. My most sincere gratitude is owed to the following individuals. To my supervisor Dr. Kendra Coulter, I value the constant patience, wisdom, and support you have shown me. Thank you for your insightful direction and encouragement throughout all stages of this project. You have inspired me to believe in my own work wholeheartedly and to confidently stand by my ethical commitments as an academic and as a woman. I cannot begin to express how grateful I am for your mentorship and for challenging me to disrupt the anthropocentric nature of sociological analysis. You have and continue to challenge me to strengthen my commitment to finding equitable solutions to interspecies conflict. I am also grateful for my committee members, Dr. Thomas Dunk and Dr. Lauren Corman. Tom, thank you for the many resources you shared and for the hours you spent helping me to fully comprehend the complexity of the issues underlying the Ontario spring bear hunt. Your knowledge and wisdom were crucial in helping me to sharpen and refine my argumentation. Lauren, it is largely because of your recommendation, encouragement, and belief in my vision for interspecies justice that I first stepped foot onto the Brock University campus. Thank you for helping me find my way into the MACS program, for your brilliant feedback, and for having faith in my work. In addition, I wish to express my appreciation and respect for Dr. Alice Hovorka, my external examiner, for thoroughly reviewing and helping me to improve the overall quality of my work. To Jim, my best friend and fiancé, I love you. Thank you for pushing me to work harder and for believing in me even when I doubted my own capabilities. I appreciate the many hours you spent listening to me talk about my findings, trepidations, and hopes for this project. I also must thank my parents, Leanne and Graydon, for supporting my dreams to pursue a MACS Degree and for letting a penniless student move back home temporarily. I am also grateful for my resilient, loving, and devoted dog, Titan, who cheered me up while I worked and slept beside my desk nearly every day for the duration of this project. Thank you also to my MACS peers that offered support throughout this process, and my wonderful classmate, Hamin Kim, for editing. Finally, I would also like to express enormous gratitude for my participants who were generous enough to take time out of their demanding schedules to speak with me. Thank you for sharing your powerful experiences and insight, all of which were instrumental in making this project a success. ECOTOURISM & HUMAN - BEAR RELATIONS v Table of Contents Abstract ii Acknowledgments iv Table of Contents v List of Tables vii Chapter 1: Introduction 1 I. Objectives and Research Questions 1 II. Rationale 1 III. Key Concepts and Terminology 12 IV. Positionality and Ethical Commitments 16 Chapter 2: Literature Review and Context 20 I. History of Ontario Black Bear Management/Relations 20 II. Gender and Political Economy in Ontario 26 III. Human-Bear Relations and Conflict 30 IV. Ecotourism and Bear/Wildlife Viewing 35 Chapter 3: Theoretical Framework 52 I. Critical Animal Studies & Engaged Theory 52 II. Ecofeminist Theory and Interspecies Solidarity 53 III. Decolonial Theory 55 Chapter 4: Methodological Approach 58 I. Intersectionality-Based Policy Analysis (IBPA) 58 ECOTOURISM & HUMAN - BEAR RELATIONS vi II. Interviews 62 Chapter 5: Results and Evaluation 65 I. Bear Viewing Programs 65 a. The McNeil River State Game Sanctuary and Refuge 65 b. The Khutzeymateen Grizzly Bear Sanctuary and Refuge 85 c. Grizzly Bear and Spirit Bear Viewing in the Great Bear Rainforest 109 II. Complementary Policies 131 a. Ecotourism Certification 131 b. The Great Bear Rainforest Agreement 134 Chapter 6: Conclusions and Future Work 163 I. Recommendations 166 II. Study Contributions, Strengths, and Limitations 169 Chapter 7: References 174 ECOTOURISM & HUMAN - BEAR RELATIONS vii List of Tables Chapter One Table 1: Ontario Black Bear Hunting Between 1990-2016 3 ECOTOURISM & HUMAN - BEAR RELATIONS 1 Chapter 1: Introduction I. Objectives and Research Questions This study seeks to contribute knowledge and arguments that could help to improve human-bear relations and to discover and assess transformative alternatives and solutions to conflict. I challenge policy and rhetoric that promotes killing other species as a solution to economic and interspecies issues. The current study also problematizes claims that killing is the most effective solution to human-bear conflict and economic crisis. A primary objective of this research is to promote interspecies solidarity by illuminating the interconnected experiences of both human and nonhuman animals involved in bear viewing and ecotourism more broadly. Current relations between humans and black bears in Ontario are oppressive and hierarchical, with humans violently dominating and manipulating the existence of black bears for their own gain. This study ultimately aims to re-imagine and explore ways of transforming human-bear relations. This research and analysis have been guided by the following questions: 1. What ecotourism policies, strategies, and programs are the most viable for Ontario? 2. Which policies or programs offer the most potential for fostering solidarity within and across species, as well as economic, social, political, and environmental benefits for northern Ontario communities? II. Rationale This study is timely and significant because northern Ontario has and continues to suffer from economic and environmental vulnerability. This study is propelled by manifold, multispecies concerns. First, northern Ontario has an exploitative and ECOTOURISM & HUMAN - BEAR RELATIONS 2 unsustainable economic dependence on sanctioned hunting, deforestation, mining, and other resource extraction industries. Second, and most central to this study, human-bear conflict has reached a boiling point in northern Ontario, even as hunting continues. It is therefore important to illuminate alternative relations and economic solutions, and to uncover evidence and examples showing that bear hunting has become obsolete and even disadvantageous economically and politically. This study is rooted in a recognition that there is an urgent need for innovative economic alternatives to lessen resource and species exploitation, especially in light of economic downturn, climate change, and resource depletion in the province. Human-Bear Conflict First and foremost, the central reason for this study is the Ontario spring bear hunt. Its many shortfalls reveal the need for better solutions to address human-bear conflict and interspecies violence in northern Ontario. Cancelled by the Conservative government in