COMING-OUT GROWTH: CONCEPTUALIZING AND MEASURING STRESS-RELATED GROWTH ASSOCIATED WITH COMING OUT TO OTHERS AS GAY OR LESBIAN A Dissertation Presented to The Graduate Faculty of The University of Akron In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy Michelle Denise Vaughan, M.A. August, 2007 COMING-OUT GROWTH: CONCEPTUALIZING AND MEASURING STRESS-RELATED GROWTH ASSOCIATED WITH COMING OUT TO OTHERS AS GAY OR LESBIAN Michelle D. Vaughan, M.A Dissertation Approved: Accepted: ______________________________ ______________________________ Chair Department Chair Dr. Charles A. Waehler Dr. Paul E. Levy ______________________________ ______________________________ Committee Member Dean of Arts and Sciences Dr. John E. Queener Dr. Ronald F. Levant ______________________________ ______________________________ Committee Member Dean of Graduate School James R. Rogers, Ph.D. George R. Newkome, Ph.D. ______________________________ ______________________________ Committee Member Date Dr. Priscilla R. Smith ______________________________ Committee Member Dr. James L. Werth, Jr. ii ABSTRACT Stress-related growth (SRG; experiences of self-reported growth associated with a stressor), has been widely studied in psychology (Park, 1998). This research has documented the frequency and validity of SRG, as well as the relationship between stressor characteristics and types/patterns of SRG (Tennen & Affleck, 1996). However, this literature has neglected SRG from non-traumatic events, despite evidence that identity development (e.g., Cass, 1996; Erikson, 1959; McCarn & Fassinger, 1996) is highly stressful and growth-enhancing. Within lesbian and gay (LG) identity development, coming out to others has been linked to growth (e.g., Oswald, 2000; Rhoads, 1995), although these experiences of coming out growth (COG) have not been studied systematically. The present study investigated the nature of experiences of COG in a sample of 418 out LG individuals. COG, as measured by the Coming Out Growth Scale (COGS), was found to have a two-dimensional structure. Individualistic Growth (IG) captured gains in authenticity, well-being, and personal identity, while Collectivistic Growth (CG), captured growth in LG social functioning, attitudes, and involvement. COGS scores related in expected ways to SRG constructs (general SRG, optimism, stress, social desirability) and LG identity constructs (outness, sexual experience, identity stage/phase). Unlike general SRG, levels of COG were similar for men and women. Results of this study support the assertion that coming out produces growth in a number of domains that iii are vital to both personality and identity growth. Strengths and limitations of the present study, as well as recommendations for future research regarding other predictors of COG, are also discussed. iv DEDICATION This study is dedicated to all members of the LGBT community. Your courage, resilience, and capacity for growth inspire me in my personal and professional life on a daily basis. I feel honored to be part of this community and to have had the opportunity to contribute to a better understanding of the strengths and growth experiences of sexual minorities. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I have been incredibly fortunate to have felt drawn to the field of psychology and the path of becoming a therapist from a young age. Along this path, many of my teachers and professors encouraged and supported my inquisitive mind and incessant curiosity. I am deeply grateful to the Psychology Department faculty at Baker University (Dr. Lisa Puma, Dr. Tony Brown, Dr. Rob Flaherty, and Dr. Rand Ziegler) who nurtured my early passion for the science and practice of psychology. I never expected that this journey would have also allowed me to develop such a diverse “family of choice” who I love and cherish. Thanks to Ann and Mary, my “pre- graduate school” friends who supported and believed in me since the beginning, and have never let a thousand miles (or so) get in the way. To Laura and Carly, who started out as my classmates and became my friends, confidents, and colleagues over the last eight years. Having such strong, warm, nurturing women as my peers has been a privilege and an honor. I hope I can be as good to you as you both have been to me. To my supplemental “cohort of choice,” Korenna, Ryan, and Christine, who helped me keep my sanity, sense of humor, and spunk in the “latter years.” May you all defend soon and claim your rightful Ph.D. (regardless of whether or not you are “Gayer than Vaughan”). To Dave (aka “Big Gay Dave”), the original Big Queer on Campus, who has been my rock, personal advisor, big brother, gay uncle, and best friend since my first days at UA. Without fail, you have always believed in me, stood by me, and encouraged vi me to live up to my full potential, even when I was unsure of my own potential. I cannot imagine these last eight years without you. You will always be the empowered, assertive voice in my head that says “Yes, you can!” wherever I may go and whatever I may do in life. To Dr. Jim Werth, who has served as one of my unofficial mentors, providing me with unique opportunities to serve LGBT individuals and those living with HIV, all while supporting my efforts to infuse my work as a researcher, teacher, clinician, and advocate with a deep appreciation for LGBT issues. To William, who provided early inspiration for my work and convinced me that I can understand “hard” science. Although I did not manage to reference Einstein’s work on the stress-energy tensor, your encouragement and support helped me get through the early days of this project during a challenging point in my career. To Charlie, who has stood by this project and my vision for it from the beginning. You have always been patient, focused, and committed to transforming me into a scientific writer from the start. Thank you! Last, but certainly not least, to Allen, who saw me through the end of this process to its successful fruition. Having you by my side (literally and figuratively) has been an unexpected gift for which I am extremely grateful. You amaze me on so many levels, and I hope I have the opportunity to be amazed by you in whatever ways the universe offers for a very long time. Namaste. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………….…………...xvi LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………….……………xvii CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………....1 The Phenomenon of Stress-Related Growth…...…............……………………………..2 Theories of Identity Development....................................................................................3 Unique Issues in Minority Identity Development…....…………………….…….……5 Models of LG Identity Development …..……………………………………………..6 Themes within Models..…………………...….…..…………………………………8 Links between Coming Out and Growth.…….…..……………...……...................10 Statement of the Problem……….……………………………………………………...11 Research Questions and General Hypotheses………………………………………….12 Summary……………………………………………………………………………….13 II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE…………………………………………………...14 SRG: Early Contributions……………………....………………….…………………..16 Overview of the SRG Literature………........………………….……………….….......18 The Transactional Model of Stress and Coping……...…….………..……………….20 The Nature of SRG…………………...………..……..............................................21 viii SRG: Rates and Relationships to Mental Health ………..…………..........................24 Dimensions of SRG………….……………..………………...……….......................25 Stressor-Specific Growth ...…..……….…………………………..............................31 SRG from Traumatic Stresses…...………………………………………………....34 SRG from More Typical Life Stresses...………………….......................................37 SRG from Minority Stress…...………………….…….….......................................39 Models of Identity Development....……………………………………………………40 Erikson’s Influence…..……………………………………………………………...41 Stress and Growth within Erikson’s Model…..……...….………………………..42 Erikson on the Identity Crisis……………………....….........................................44 Erikson on Minority Identity.……………………………………………………45 Key Concepts in LG Identity Development…..……………………………………….46 LG Identity Development in Context….….…………..……………………………50 Key Processes in LG Identity Development……..…..……........................................52 The Process of Awareness……..………….…………………………………...….53 The Process of Exploration…………………..……................................................55 The Process of Acceptance………………………………….…………………….59 The Process of Commitment………………………………………………………61 The Process of Integration…..………....………….................................................65 Experiences of COG in LG Identity Models……………………………….………..70 Critiques and Research on LG Identity Models…..………………………………….71 Researchers’ Perspectives on COG…..….……..………………………………….......75 Quantitative Research on Coming Out and Positive Experiences..………………….77 ix Limitations and Conclusions……………..………………………………………..80 SRG from LG Identity Development………………………………………………..82 Qualitative Research on COG. ………..………………………………..……………85 Growth in honesty/authenticity…………………………………………………...86 Identity growth…………...…….………………………………………………...88 Growth in mental health/resilience…...…….………………………………….....90 Social/relational growth…….……….…………………………………………...92 Advocacy/generativity growth.…………………………………………………..95 Limitations and conclusions……………….…………………………………….98 Conclusions and Recommendations………………………........……………………...99 Research Questions and Hypotheses.…….………………...............................................99