POLITICAL JUXTAPOSITIONS: WILDCRAFTING AMONG HERB DIGGERS IN GRAHAM COUNTY, NORTH CAROLINA (1900-2004) by Shannon E. McBride (Under the direction of J. Peter Brosius) ABSTRACT Since 1980 the harvesting of nontimber forest products has become an increasing concern of land managers, economic development organizations, and a variety of individuals interested in finding ways of earning a living in western North Carolina. Chief among these concerns are issues regarding who has the right to harvest these species, sustainability, marketability and profitability. Between the summer of 1997 and the fall of 2004 I explored these issues by conducting historical/archival and ethnographic research on the cultural history of ‘wildcrafting’ in Graham County, North Carolina. An emphasis was placed on ideas stemming from Political Ecology and Ethnoecology while also addressing several applied concerns. My results show that the number of ‘mountain people’ who are wild harvesting species from the forest in order to supplement their income is decreasing over time. Several factors are determining this trend including: diminishing access to resources, increasing degrees of land privatization, diminishing resources, the increasing amount of time and labor required to obtain nontimber forest products (NTFP’s), low prices being paid for NTFP’s and inconsistent markets. At the same time, however, increasing numbers of ‘outsiders’ are interested in cultivating these species and producing value-added products made from them. This dynamic has resulted in cultural conflicts over what are and are not appropriate standards of living and livelihood strategies. Current notions of wildcrafting pose a threat and a challenge to the identities of mountain people who have lived in Graham County for generations. This threat is locally perceived as being yet another stage in a ‘government’ effort to disenfranchise mountain people that began near the beginning of the twentieth century. Such beliefs, while often justified, pose an impediment and a challenge to organizations attempting to identify constructive ways of managing our nation’s public resources. INDEX WORDS: Wildcrafting, Herb Digging, Moss, Ginseng, Sustainable Economic Development, National Forests, Political Ecology, Ethnoecology, Snowbird Cherokee POLITICAL JUXTAPOSITIONS: WILDCRAFTING AMONG HERB DIGGERS IN GRAHAM COUNTY, NORTH CAROLINA (1900-2004) by SHANNON E. MCBRIDE B.S, Miami University, 1993 M.S., Miami University, 1995 A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of The University of Georgia in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY ATHENS, GEORGIA 2005 Ó 2005 Shannon E. McBride All Rights Reserved POLITICAL JUXTAPOSITIONS: WILDCRAFTING AMONG HERB DIGGERS IN GRAHAM COUNTY, NORTH CAROLINA (1900-2004) by SHANNON E. MCBRIDE Major Professor: J. Peter Brosius Committee: Mike Olien Kavita Pandit James Affolter Electronic Version Approved: Maureen Grasso Dean of the Graduate School The University of Georgia May 2005 iv DEDICATION For all of those who are striving for a better tomorrow, a world in which our differences no longer divide us. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Anyone who has completed a Ph.D. dissertation will tell you that it requires a lot of perseverance and soul searching to get it done. I do not believe that any of us would complete such a task without the reassurance, support and generosity of other people. This has certainly been true for me. This project began when Phil Gibson of Western Carolina Tomorrow suggested that I meet with Robin Suggs of Yellow Creek Botanical Institute. At the time Mr. Suggs was in the beginning stages of creating an organization to initiate a sustainable economic development initiative in Graham County. While witnessing this process I was introduced to a variety of people and issues in the area, and became intrigued by its history of harvesting nontimber forest products. Eventually Yellow Creek Botanical Institute came into being and helped support my research by hiring me as a consultant for a three months, for which I am very grateful. This opportunity also afforded me the opportunity of interacting with a variety of people who became my future participants and advisors. They include; Melissa Caldwell, Frank Rogers Jr. (Director of Graham County’s Mapping and Land Records office), Anna Van Scoyoc (University of Georgia librarian), Frank Findley, Gary Kaufman and R.E. Vann of the United States Forest Service, Iva Rattler (caretaker of the Junaluska Museum), Ronnie Mason, Joanne Parrott, Monty Holder, Ila Hatter and Jerry Coleman, Jeanine Davis, Tony Hayes, and Jackie Greenfield. I also owe a special thanks also to Bruce DeGroot, Karen Mickler and the rest of the DeGroot family at Yellow Branch Farm. They provided me with a place to stay for many months and fed me well. I also want to vi show my appreciation to the Eastern Band of the Cherokee Tribal Council for approving this research, and to my research committee. Dr. Pete Brosius, Dr. Ben Blount, Dr. Kavita Pandit, Dr. Mike Olien, and Dr. Jim Affolter all spent a considerable amount of time and effort guiding me through my Ph.D. program. Early in my program Dr. Virginia Nazarea and Dr. Robert Rhodes mentored me as well, and introduced me to the Foxfire Archives in Clayton, Georgia. In addition, David Cozzo and Gary Kaufman generously donated their time to look over and critique early drafts of many of these chapters, in addition to providing me with valuable references. Finally, I would like to thank Mikell Gleason, Emma Chesser, and Rosalie Splitter for enabling me to have so much time off of work to write this dissertation, and my husband for reading, discussing, and being very patient throughout this long process. This would not have been possible without you and the help of all those who let me spend time with and interview them. Again, thank you all. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................v LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................ix CHAPTER 1 POLITICAL DIMENSIONS OF ‘FORGETTING’ ....................................1 Objectives...............................................................................................5 Knowledge/Change Relationships .........................................................9 Study Area............................................................................................19 2 TECHNIQUES AND CHALLENGES......................................................29 3 CHANGE, CONFLICT, AND MECHANISMS OF POWER..................46 Introduction..........................................................................................46 Early Graham County..........................................................................48 Stage One (1900-1930)........................................................................52 Mechanized Logging............................................................................60 Mechanized Logging’s Effect on Plant Use ........................................72 Further Development ...........................................................................84 Overview of Stage One ........................................................................87 Stage Two (1930-1980) .......................................................................92 Burley Tobacco....................................................................................93 Shift in American Medicine .................................................................97 viii 1950’s Outmigration..........................................................................101 Effect of Outmigration on Nontimber Forest Product Knowledge....108 Women’s Work..................................................................................110 1930-1980 Overview..........................................................................111 Stage Three (1980-present)................................................................113 Moss...................................................................................................117 Other Current Harvesting Practices ...................................................119 Fewer Experts, More Technology......................................................122 New Challenges .................................................................................126 Outsiders, New Locals, and Mountain People ...................................128 New Generation.................................................................................134 Issues of Power ..................................................................................139 Summary............................................................................................145 WILDCRAFTING: VALORIZING THE PAST, CO-OPTING THE FUTURE..................................................................................................147 Origin of the Word Wildcrafting .......................................................149 Sustainable Wildcrafting....................................................................155 Conflicting Ideologies of Wildcrafting..............................................158 The Marketing of Wildcrafting..........................................................164 Current Herb Diggers.........................................................................167 Consequences of Outsiders Controlling Development ......................175