CONTEMPORARY INTERPRETATION OF KODRAT PEREMPUAN: LOCAL DISCOURSE OF MUSLIM WOMEN’S LEADERSHIP IN INDONESIA DE TEGENWOORDIGE INTERPRETATIE VAN KODRAT PEREMPUAN: HET LOKALE DISCOURS OVER VROUWELIJK LEIDERSCHAP IN INDONESIË Thesis to obtain the degree of Doctor from the Erasmus University Rotterdam by command of the rector magnificus Prof.dr. H.A.P. Pols and in accordance with the decision of the Doctorate Board. The public defence shall be held on Thursday 13 April 2017 at 13.30 hrs by Kusmana born in Tasikmalaya, Indonesia Promotiecommissie: Promotor : Prof. dr. Dick Douwes Other members : Prof.dr. A.A. van Stipriaan Prof.dr. C. Derichs Dr. N.J.G. Kaptein - ii - ABSTRACT This study discusses the contemporary interpretation of local women’s lead- ership framed in the lens of constructed female nature, and of cultural citizen- ship. The study contests the view which asserts that constructed woman kodrad deeply impedes woman’s social engagement. It argues that kodrat does hinder women’s participation but not totally. In other words, the perception of kodrat supports limitedly women’s participation. It means women have space and op- portunity to socially engage but within the limitation of the perception of kodrat. The scope of this limitation is fluid and can be changed over times and contexts depending on women’s situation and capacities themselves. The more conducive the context they live in and the more capacities they have, the more probable women are able to engage socially. So, basically it discusses women’s strategies (experiences) in their effort to bypass the limitations. In this Reformasi era, where democratization and gender equity development are occupying greater space in the Indonesian landscape, opportunities for women’s social engagement are also greater. The challenges of cultural (locally derived) exclusiveness and religious radicalism may also hinder women’s space and opportunities for social activity. However, these challenges certainly will not close space and opportunity to do so, because the opposite powers – democratization and the gender equality move- ment- are supporting an increased engagement of women in society. The study focuses on the women leadership based on four cases of woman as Nyai, Ibu or Ummi, Posyandu Kader, woman head of village or urban village, of sub-district, and female member of local parliament (MP) in Tasikmalaya Re- gency and City. On in one hand, it deals with leadership experience of women in these four cases. On the other hand, it also examines the dynamics of their ex- perience. It is interesting to see on how their struggle to have more public space within their marginality had gone so far, as well as on how they take advantages of the new situation, the Reformasi era for their own interests of their leadership. As a descriptive study, this thesis deploys Anthony Giddens’s perspective of agency in discussing its findings. The data are arranged into categories, sub-cat- egories and terms, identifying internal and external factor that influence woman social engagement. Internally, it examines woman’s strategies in handling barriers they face, and shortcomings they have. Externally, it also discusses influences that create conditions for women’s participation through the analysis of state policies and media’s coverage of women’s issues, particularly in the four targeted themes. The study is based on the field work in TasikmalayaKota and Kabupaten which - iii - was conducted 8 months from the middle of august 2008 to middle of April 2009 and about the same period from April to November 2010. This study concludes that the perception of the constructed kodrat perem- puan is an important factor that determines many women’s civic engagement in the site where the study took place, Tasikmalaya Regency and City. The signifi- cance of this study is that it concentrates on the perceptions of various agents -- including the State, religious and social agents, educators, politicians, health activists, etc., -- who all participate in the formulation of what they see as wom- en’s ideal roles and by so doing construct the kodrat perempuan. This study con- firms Robinson’s and Blackburn’s conclusion that kodrat perempuan has often been framed as a source of the restriction of women’s civic engagement (Robin- son, 2009. p. 192; Blackburn, 2004. p. 223, 229). However, this study finds that women in Tasikmalaya deal with kodrat pragmatically and realistically use it as source of engagement. Rather than seeing kodrat only as a restriction, in Tasik- malaya, women actually managed to create certain degree of space, opportunity and links to engage in social activities. In other words, outside the existing restric- tions, women empower themselves and they find solutions suited to them to en- able them to get actively engaged in local leadership. Finally, the study also finds that in its wider discourse where the interrelation of the practices of the agents, the State, and the news take place, woman’s civic engagement, seeing from the ex- pression of cultural citizenship, represents their effort to pave the way to become fully equal citizens. - iv - ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This thesis has arrived to completion by the support of institutions and in- dividuals to whom I am sincerely grateful. I greatly convey my gratitude to The Indonesia’s Young Leader Programme for the scholarship. At this project, I would like to thank Prof. Wim Stokhof, Dr. Nico Kaptein, and Prof. Léon Buskens for their kindness and helpful during my study. My appreciation goes also to Marise van Amersfoort for her sincere assistance to make sure the wellbeing of my stay in Leiden. Special thanks also go to Dr. Dick van der Mei and Sheridan for their suggestions in polishing my English language as well as their critical insight. I should also mention University of Leiden and KITLV in which the number of staffs in both libraries have assisted me in providing the references I needed. I must also give my appreciation to University of Erasmus, Rotterdam, for my PhD defense. I would like to convey my gratitude to my Faculty of Ushuluddin, UIN Syarif Hidayatullah State University, and Ministry of Religious Affairs for their giving me permission to pursue my PhD study. Special appreciation goes to Prof. Azyumardi Azra, Prof. Komaruddin Hidayat, Dr. Hamid Nasuhi, and Fuad Ja- bali, Ph.D., for their support and critical insights. I deeply indebted to Prof. Dr. Dede Rasyada, MA., Rector of UIN Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta, Prof. Dr., Amsal Bachtiar, the director of Islamic Higher Education, and Prof. Kamaruddin Amin, Ph.D., the director Genederal of Islamic Higher Education for their granting me financial support to finalize my study. My heartfelt thanks are also directed to all my informants and respondents particularly in Tasikmalaya City and Tasikmalaya Regency to whom I am indebt- ed information and their experiences as the subject of the study. I also thank to my Indonesian colleagues in Leiden who made friendship fruitful and enjoy- able during my stay in this city: Din Wahid, Haidir Bamu Alim, Siti Azkiyah, Salamah Agung, Amiq Ahyad, Yasrul Huda, Sujadi Ahsan, Nurcholish, Hilman Latief, Yanwar, Pak Mintardjo, Surjadi, Pak Saleh, and many others which I could not mention here. I dedicate this monograph to my parents: my father H. Oking Azhuri, my mother Siti Habsyah, as well as my brothers: Zeni Nurdin, Pendi Supendi, Syam Agus Solihin, Bubung Lukman Hakim, Anton Firmasyah and Dani Yusuf Ak- bar, and my sisters: Hani Hanifah, Ina Nabila, and Asri Fitria Annisa. Finally, I thank to my wife Awalia Rahma who took care the family during my absent, and to my daughters Ayisha Amana Rahma, and Raia Tanaya Kusmana, and my son Daneesh Aydin Amirina. This thesis is also dedicated for them. Leiden-Ciputat, 2017 - v - A NOTE OF TRANSLITERATION In this study, I have applied modern spelling for all Indonesian terms. I have used the international system of transliteration for Arabic names and terms which are not part of the Indonesian language. I do not add ‘s’ for the plural forms of Indonesian words, but I have maintained certain Arabic words in its grammatical structure. For the translation of Qur’anic verses, I use Translation of the Meaning of The Noble Qur’an in the English Language, translated by Dr. Mu- hammad Taqī-ud-Dīn Al-Hilālī, and Dr. Muhammad Muhsin Khān (1417 H). - vi - CONTENTS Abstract .................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgments .................................................................................... v A Note of Transliteration ......................................................................... vi Contents .................................................................................................. vii Part I. Introduction: Framing, Focus, Method, and Organization of Study Chapter One Introduction .................................................................... 3 A. Framing ........................................................................ 3 B. Objective of the Study .................................................. 9 C. Research Questions ....................................................... 10 1. Research Questions ................................................. 10 2. A Hypothesis .......................................................... 11 3. Site of the Study: Tasikmalaya Regency and Tasikmalaya City ...................................................... 12 D. Previous Studies ..........................................................