THE ECOLOGY MODEL AND ON GOING PROCESS OF CULTURE CHANGE: A CASE STUDY OF GANGAW TOWNSHIP IN MYANMAR PhD DISSERTATION NYUNT NYUNT WIN DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF YANGON MYANMAR April, 2012 THE ECOLOGY MODEL AND ON GOING PROCESS OF CULTURE CHANGE: A CASE STUDY OF GANGAW TOWNSHIP IN MYANMAR Submitted: Nyunt Nyunt Win Roll No: 4 PhD - Anth-5 This dissertation is submitted to the Department of Anthropology, University of Yangon in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy. 2012 CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS i ABSTRACT iii LIST OF TABLES ix LIST OF FIGURES x LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xv Chapter (1) INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the study 1 1.2 Problem statement 2 1.3 Justification 4 1.4 Aim and objectives 5 1.5 Conceptual framework 5 1.6 Composition of the study 7 Chapter (2) LITERATURE REVIEW: ECOLOGICAL APPROACH TO CULTURE 2.1 Cultural ecology 9 2.2 Evolutionary adaptation 14 2.3 Cultural adaptation 14 2.4 Ecology and social organization 16 2.5 Environment, subsistence and demography 18 2.6 The influence of culture on environment 21 2.6.1 Major food-getting patterns 21 2.6.2 Irrigated agriculture 22 2.7 The social environment and cultural response 24 2.7.1 The cultural ecology of households 25 2.7.2 The culture of the school 27 2.7.3 The media and change 27 Chapter (3) RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 Study design 30 3.2 Pilot survey 30 3.3 Study population 31 3.4 Sampling of the study sites 32 3.5 Study period 41 3.6 Data collection methods 41 3.7 Variables 48 3.8 Data analysis 48 3.9 Ethical considerations 49 3.10 Strengths and Limitation of the study 49 Chapter (4) ENVIRONMENT AND POPULATION 4.1 Natural environment 51 4.2 The management to adapt in the natural environment 53 4.2.1 Construction of dams 56 4.2.2 Canal staff 60 4.3 Water 61 4.4 Cultural ecological approach to background history of Gangaw Township 64 4.5 Social environment 69 4.5.1 The social and demographic conditions of stable high fertility 69 4.5.2 Marriage 75 4.6 Health and Health care 83 4.6.1 Birth spacing 83 4.6.2 Traditional way of birth 84 4.6.3 Mortality 85 4.6.4 Hospital and dispensaries 88 4.6.5 Some traditional belief and practices on health care 89 Chapter (5) ECONOMIC RESOURCES AND SUBSISTENCE PATTERNS 5.1 Environmental manipulation and resource management 91 5.1.1 Alluvial Sandbank 92 5.1.2 Farmland types (varieties) 94 5.2 Irrigation 95 5.2.1 Rice varieties 96 5.3 Dry farming 101 5.4 Labour contribution 103 5.5 Crop production 106 5.5.1 Crops grown on paddy fields 107 5.5.2 Crops grown on farmland 110 5.5.3 Crops grown on sandbank 113 5.5.4 Crops grown on indaing (virgin land) 116 5.5.5 Horticulture 117 5.6 Labour supply 118 5.7 Utilization of fertilizers and chemicals 119 5.8 Animal husbandry 122 5.9 Hunting and fishing 129 5.10 The social environment and food getting strategies in trade 130 5.11 Handicrafts 137 5.12 Sale of customer goods and commodities 144 Chapter (6) THE SOCIAL RESPONSE TO CULTURE CHANGE 6.1 The cultural ecological perspectives of the household 155 6.2 Relationship between education and village environment 161 6.2.1 Structure of the learning environment 164 6.2.2 Extra subjects teaching in the school 167 6.2.3 Discipline and classroom management category 167 6.2.4 Attitude towards schooling 169 6.3 Socio-economic change due to media 169 6.3.1 Environmental relationship 170 6.3.2 Electricity 173 6.3.3 Social sector 175 Chapter (7) DISCUSSION 7.1 Population and environment 178 7.2 Socio-demographic characteristics 180 7.3 Structure of economic activities 182 7.4 Family structure 187 7.5 The analytical approach to educational status 189 7.6 Presence of television and communication 189 Chapter (8) CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 8.1 Conclusion 191 8.2 Recommendations 194 REFERENCES APPENDICES ACKNOWLEGMENTS First of all, I would like to thank Dr. Mya Mya Khin, Professor & Head, Department of Anthropology, University of Yangon, who guided, advised and assisted me to fulfill this PhD thesis research as Chair Person and to her keen interest and permission to carry out this research. A special word of thanks go to U San Win, Director General (Retired), Archaeology, National Museum and library Department, Ministry of Culture, who guided, advised and assisted me to fulfill this PhD thesis research as Referee. I would especially like to acknowledge and thank Dr. Tin Maung Chit, Deputy Regional Health Director (Retired), Ayeyarwaddy Regional Health Department, Ministry of Health, who guided, advised and assisted me to fulfill this PhD thesis research as External examiner. I am also deeply grateful to Dr. Thidar Htwe Win, Professor & Head, Department of Anthropology, Yadanapon University, my supervisor, for being very supportive and guiding me to stay on the track. I would like to heartily acknowledge the Co-Supervisor, Sayagyi Dr. Tin Thein, Professor & Head (Retired), Department of Geology, University of Yangon who gave me the ability and the strength to complete this PhD thesis research. My grateful thanks also go to Sayagyi U Kyaw Win, Director General (Retired), Department of Archaeology, Ministry of Culture, who gave precious ideas and advice and to Sayamagyi Daw Sein Sein, Director (Retired), Higher Education Department, Lower Myanmar, who gave help as well as advice in compiling this PhD thesis research from start to finish. My heart-felt thanks go to Sayargyi Dr. Than Tun Sein, Director (Retired), Socio- Medical Research Division, Department of Medical Research, Lower Myanmar, Ministry of Health for his kind assistance in the application of Research Methodology to be able to use it systematically and for his invaluable guidelines to accomplish this thesis from the beginning to the very end. A very special thank goes to Dr.Takatani, Michio, Professor, Social and Cultural Anthropology, International and Regional Study, Hiroshima University, who provided valuable suggestions and advice. i Furthermore, I am also deeply grateful to Dr. Aye Kyaw, visiting lecturer, Department of Anthropology, University of Yangon for his kindness, earnest support and encouragement from start to finish. I also would like to thank Dr. Lei Lei Win, Director of Health System Research Division, Department of Medical Research, Lower Myanmar and Dr. Saw Saw, Research Scientist, Health System Research Division, Department of Medical Research, Lower Myanmar for their systematic instructions and guidelines to complete this PhD thesis. I am also fortunate to have had the support of a great number of kind and dear friends, of whom I would particularly like to thank Senior Lecturer Daw Nilar Tin and Daw Khin Moe Moe Kyu, Lecturer, Department of Anthropology, University of Yangon who advised me to fulfill this PhD thesis research as members. I especially give my ‘thank you’ to U S’San Thein, Editor (Retd.) of the Sarpaybeikman Board, Printing and Publishing Corporation, Ministry of Information, Human Development Officer (HDO) (former), Human Development Initiative (HDI) Phase-1, UNDP Translator and Social Mobilization Officer, Mangrove Service Network (MSN), for his kind and patient assistance to smoothly accomplish this thesis. Thank you to my brother, Police Lieutenant Colonel Tint Aung (Police Force, Gangaw District) -- Daw Phyu Phyu Win who first introduced me to Gangaw and helped to direct my academic interests towards the subject matter of this work, and my eldest brother, U Kyaw Kyaw – Daw Thin Thin Oo and my elder sisters (Daw Nwe Nwe Htay) and Daw Nwe Nwe Aye for their kind help and assistance for the completion of this research. Thank you to my dear niece Thidar Aung, who sent me reference books from Singapore. Last, but not least, I would like to acknowledge the members of the Village Peace and Development Council and the villagers who took part to answer my research questions in collecting the data for the PhD thesis research. ii ABSTRACT This study proposes that cultural ecological approach was used in carrying out the research: a case study of Gangaw Township in Myanmar. Ecology is the study of the working of ecosystem, of the behavioural in interdependences of different kinds of organisms with respect to one another and their nonbiotic environment. Cultural ecology is the systemic study of the relationship between the environment and society. Therefore, cultural ecology is the study of the ways in which culture is used by people to adapt to their environment. The aims of this study are to be able to link the natural environmental factors with socio-cultural system of the people in Gangaw Township and to explore the socio- cultural stability, modernity and education in the study area. Specific objectives include to elicit information on how the environmental changes and cultural ways of life are interrelated in the study area, to identify the adaptive strategies of the local people in the study area on the environmental changes and to make recommendations as regards how the positive aspect of indigenous culture should be maintained. It was a Case Study performed at five study villages in Gangaw township. Data collection methods included the design of Ethnographic research, like qualitative research depending on the specific objectives of this study to correlate the documented data. The study villages are Shon Shi, Zahaw, Taung Kin Yan, Myauk Kin Yan and Kyaw villages which are situated in Gangaw township. The study took place from June 2008 to April 2012.