Edited by Jonathan Crush and Daniel Tevera Southern African Migration Programme (SAMP) Kingston • Cape Town International Development Research Centre (IDRC) Ottawa • Cairo • Dakar • Montevideo • Nairobi • New Delhi • Singapore Published by SAMP, Cape Town and IDRC, Ottawa Southern African Migration Programme - Canada 152 Albert Street Kingston, ON K7L 3N6 Canada www.queensu.ca/samp/ [email protected] Southern African Migration Programme - Southern Africa 6 Spin Street Church Square Cape Town International Development Research Centre PO Box 8500 Ottawa, ON K1G 3H9 Canada www.idrc.ca [email protected] ISBN 978-1-55250-499-4 (ebook) ISBN 978-1-920409-22-7 © Copyright SAMP First published 2010 Cover by Joan Baker and Jacana Media Layout by Joan Baker, waterberrydesigns cc Production by Idasa Publishing All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without prior permission from the publishers. Bound and printed by Unity Press, Cape Town Contents Foreword ix Acknowledgements xi Acronyms xii Chapter One Exiting Zimbabwe 1 Jonathan Crush and Daniel Tevera Chapter Two A History of Zimbabwean Migration to 1990 52 Alois S. Mlambo Chapter Three Internal Migration in Zimbabwe: The Impact of Livelihood Destruction in Rural and Urban Areas 79 Deborah Potts Chapter Four Discontent and Departure: Attitudes of Skilled Zimbabweans Towards Emigration 112 Daniel Tevera and Jonathan Crush Chapter Five Nursing the Health System: The Migration of Health Professionals from Zimbabwe 133 Abel Chikanda Chapter Six Transnational Lives: The Experience of Zimbabweans in Britain 156 Alice Bloch ZIMBABWE ’S EXODUS : CRISIS, MIGRATION, SURVIVAL Chapter Seven Between Obligation, Profit and Shame: Zimbabwean Migrants and the UK Care Industry 179 JoAnn McGregor Chapter Eight Regendering the Zimbabwean Diaspora in Britain 207 Dominic Pasura Chapter Nine Zimbabwe in Johannesburg 225 Daniel Makina Chapter Ten Zimbabweans on the Farms of Northern South Africa 244 Blair Rutherford Chapter Eleven The Voices of Migrant Zimbabwean Women in South Africa 269 Kate Lefko-Everett Chapter Twelve Smuggling on the Zimbabwe–Mozambique Border 291 Nedson Pophiwa Chapter Thirteen Migrant Remittances and Household Survival in Zimbabwe 307 Daniel Tevera, Jonathan Crush and Abel Chikanda Chapter Fourteen Remittances, Informalisation and Dispossession in Urban Zimbabwe 324 Sarah Bracking and Lloyd Sachikonye Chapter Fifteen Transnationalism and Undocumented Migration Between Rural Zimbabwe and South Africa 346 France Maphosa Chapter Sixteen Metaphors of Migration: Zimbabwean Migrants in the South African Media 363 Aquilina Mawadza and Jonathan Crush Chapter Seventeen Silence and Fragmentation: South African Responses to Zimbabwean Migration 377 Tara Polzer Contributors 400 Index 401 IV LIST OF FIGURES AND LIST OF TABLES List of figures Figure 1.1: Recorded Cross-Border Movement from Zimbabwe to South Africa, 1983-2008 5 Figure 4.1: Emigration Potential by Age Group 120 Figure 5.1: Zimbabwean Health Professionals in the UK, 1995-2003 137 Figure 5.2: Registered Nurses in Zimbabwe, 1995-2001 138 Figure 5.3: Zimbabwean Nurses Registered in the United Kingdom, 1998-2007 139 Figure 5.4: The Stepwise Migration of Zimbabwean Nurse Professionals 140 Figure 5.5: Number of Nurses in the Public Health Sector, 1991-2000 142 Figure 5.6: Public versus Private Sector Share of Nurses 143 Figure 6.1: Zimbabwean Applications for Asylum in the UK (Excluding Dependants), 1998 to 2006 157 Figure 6.2: Reasons for Leaving Zimbabwe 159 Figure 6.3: Pre- and Post-Migration Employment 162 Figure 6.4: Numbers of Hours Worked Per Week 166 Figure 6.5: Conditions for Return to Zimbabwe 170 Figure 6.6: Changes That Would Encourage Development Contribution 172 Figure 9.1: Annual Arrivals in Johannesburg 226 Figure 9.2: Cumulative Zimbabwean Population in Johannesburg 227 Figure 9.3: Economic versus Political Reasons for Migration 229 Figure 9.4: Annual Arrivals in Johannesburg by Sex 231 Figure 9.5: Age Profile of Zimbabwean Migrants in Johannesburg 232 Figure 13.1: Average Share of Expenses Paid from Remittances 316 Figure 14.1: Monthly Average Household Income 327 Figure 14.2: Relationship of Remitters to Recipients in Low-Density Harare 330 List of tables Table 1.1: Location of Zimbabwean Migrants Within SADC 6 Table 1.2: Zimbabwean Migrant Stock by Region 7 Table 1.3: Location of Zimbabweans in South Africa, 2001 8 Table 1.4: Stated Purpose of Entry from Zimbabwe to South Africa, 2002-8 8 Table 1.5: Zimbabwean Entrants to United Kingdom, 2002-7 9 Table 1.6: Length of Migratory Experience 10 V ZIMBABWE ’S EXODUS : CRISIS, MIGRATION, SURVIVAL Table 1.7: Demographic Profile of Migrants 11 Table 1.8: Occupational Profile of Zimbabweans 12 Table 1.9: Frequency of Return 13 Table 1.10: Sex of International Migrants, 2005 17 Table 2.1: White Population Increase 1891-1969 55 Table 2.2: White Population by Country of Birth, 1901-1956 57 Table 2.3: White Population by Country of Birth, 1969 58 Table 2.4: White Net Migration and Natural Increase, 1901-1969 58 Table 2.5: White Population Sex Ratio, 1901-1956 59 Table 2.6: Racial Composition of Population, 1911-1951 59 Table 2.7: Net White Migration, 1921-1964 60 Table 2.8: Net White Migration, 1972-1979 62 Table 2.9: Africans Employed in Mining, 1906-10 64 Table 2.10: African Population by Nationality, Salisbury, 1911-1969 65 Table 2.11: Origin of African Male Employees in Zimbabwe, 1911-1951 66 Table 2.12: Foreign Workers in Zimbabwe, 1956 67 Table 2.13: Foreign Workers in Commercial Agriculture, 1941-74 67 Table 2.14: Contract Labour Migration to South African Mines, 1920-90 68 Table 2.15: Foreign Black Workers Employed Legally in South Africa 69 Table 2.16: Immigrants to Zimbabwe by Category, 1978-1987 71 Table 3.1: Urban Population Growth Rates,1982-2002 82 Table 3.2: Provincial Population Distribution by Land-Use Category, 1992 and 2002 84 Table 3.3: Provincial Population Growth Indices, 1992-2002 88 Table 3.4: Interprovincial Lifetime Migration, 2002 91 Table 3.5: Inter-Censal, Interprovincial Migration, 2002 93 Table 4.1: Employment Sectors of Professionals 115 Table 4.2: Distribution of Professionals’ Race and Residence 116 Table 4.3: Age and Sex of Professionals 116 Table 4.4: Demographic Profile of Students 118 Table 4.5: Commitment to Emigrate Amongst Skilled Zimbabweans 121 Table 4.6: Potential Destinations of Emigrants from Zimbabwe 124 Table 4.7: Satisfaction with the Quality of Life in Zimbabwe 125 Table 4.8: Perceptions of Future Conditions in Zimbabwe 126 Table 4.9: Comparison Between Zimbabwe and Most Likely Destination 127 VI LIST OF TABLES Table 4.10: Student Satisfaction/Expectations about Economic Conditions 128 Table 5.1: Profile of Nurses 135 Table 5.2: Distribution of Zimbabwe-Trained Nurses, 2005 136 Table 5.3: Registered Nurses, 1997-2000 140 Table 5.4: Nurse Staffing Patterns at Selected Public Health Institutions 144 Table 5.5: Most Likely Destinations of Zimbabwean Migrants 145 Table 5.6: Reasons for Intention to Move 146 Table 5.7: Patient Attendance at Selected Health Institutions in Zimbabwe, 1995-2000 149 Table 6.1: Current Immigration Status 160 Table 6.2: Most Recent Job Prior to Emigration 163 Table 6.3: Current or Most Recent Job in the UK 164 Table 6.4: Remittances to Zimbabwe from UK 169 Table 6.5: Potential Contributions to Development in Zimbabwe 171 Table 9.1: Location of Zimbabweans in Johannesburg, 2001 228 Table 9.2: Zimbabwean Population in South Africa, 2001-2007 228 Table 9.3: Source Areas of Zimbabweans in Johannesburg 230 Table 9.4: Age Profile of Zimbabweans in Johannesburg 231 Table 9.5: Age Profile of Zimbabwean Migrants by Sex 233 Table 9.6: Educational Profile of Zimbabweans in Johannesburg 234 Table 9.7: Migrant Employment in Johannesburg 235 Table 9.8: Migrant Earnings in Johannesburg 237 Table 9.9: Number of Dependants Supported in Zimbabwe and South Africa 237 Table 9.10: Remittances to Zimbabwe from Johannesburg 237 Table 9.11: Migrant Savings 238 Table 9.12: Probability of Return Migration 239 Table 10.1: Age Distribution of Farmworkers 249 Table 10.2: Educational Level of Farmworkers 250 Table10.3: Marital and Provider Status of Farmworkers 250 Table 10.4: Documents Used to Enter South Africa 252 Table 10.5: Years Worked on Farm 252 Table 10.6: Previous Job in Zimbabwe 253 Table 10.7: Farm Jobs by Sex 256 Table 10.8: Monthly Wages 256 Table 10.9: Number of People Supported in Zimbabwe 261 VII ZIMBABWE ’S EXODUS : CRISIS, MIGRATION, SURVIVAL Table 13.1: Annual Remittances by Frequency of Remitting 308 Table 13.2: Main Remittance Channels 309 Table 13.3: Amount Brought Home on Last Visit 310 Table 13.4: Preferred Methods of Remitting Goods 311 Table 13.5: Value of Goods Brought Home 311 Table 13.6: Annual Remittances by Migrant Destination 312 Table 13.7: Annual Cash Remittances by Occupation 313 Table 13.8: Annual Cash Remittances by Skill Level 314 Table 13.9: Perceived Importance of Remittances to Household 315 Table 13.10: Household Income 315 Table 13.11: Perceived Importance of Remittances to Household 317 Table 13.12: Expenditure of Remittances 317 Table 13.13: Food Poverty Index 318 Table 13.14: Lived Poverty Index 319 Table 14.1: Sex and Location of Respondents 326 Table 14.2: Monthly Average Household Income by Type of Suburb 327 Table 14.3: Receiving Households, 2005 and 2006 328 Table 14.4: Households Receiving Goods and/or Money by Suburb, 2005 and 2006 329 Table 14.5: Relationship of Primary Remitter to Household 330 Table 14.6: Relationship to Sender 331 Table 14.7: Timing of Most Recent Receipt 332 Table 14.8: Regularity of Receipt of Money 332 Table 14.9: Main Remittance Channel for Goods 333 Table 14.10: Explanation for Choice of Mode of Transit of Goods 334 Table 14.11: Channels for Cash Remittances 334 Table 14.12: Money Changing Methods 335 Table 14.13: Frequency of Return Visits 337 Table 14.14: Number of People Supported by Remittances 338 VIII Foreword Stories about migration are full of stereotypes and over-simplification.