eLena tianina (russia) INHABITANTS OF THE HOLY RIVER OF NOVGOROD: THE VOLKHOV IN THE HISTORIC, CULTURAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL TRADITION OF MEDIEVAL NOVGOROD The River Volkhov, connecting Lake Ilmen and Lake Ladoga, used to be a transportation line of utmost importance in northern Russia (Fig. 1). As early as the 8th–9th century AD, the water route along the Volkhov was mastered by the Slavs – migrants from the southern shores of the Baltic Sea. During the Viking epoch, two major townships of northern Russia appeared at the head and the outfall of the Volkhov: they were Ladoga and the predecessor of Novgorod, Rurik’s Township. And in the second quarter of the 10th century Novgorod the Great was founded. For the city’s population, the River Volkhov was not only the basis of their economic life, but also a sacred natural feature. The hydronym Volkhov , in the language of the autochthonous population of the region, means ‘drumly’ – the river water is cloudy due to the silt load. However, for the Slavs taking residence there it was also associated with the notion of a magus – volkhv in Russian. In medieval Russia this was the name for the pagan votaries, wizards and diviners. Evidence has been preserved up to the present day that the Volkhov was not only worshipped by the people of Novgorod as a sacred river, but also represented an independent deity. The personified image of the deity of the River Volkhov has been preserved in the Novgorod legend about Volkhov, the shapeshifter prince. The legend was included in the later Novgorod chronicles telling the story of the appear - ance of Novgorod and the Novgorod princes of the times before Rurik was called in – the ‘Tale of the beginning of the Russian land, the creation of Nov - gorod, and the origin of the family of the Slovene princes’ ( Гиляров , 1878, 15 –17). This tale is included in the ‘Flower Garden’ (1665) and a few other an - nalistic memorials of the 17th century. In the preceding period, it had for a long time been part of the oral folk tradition. We will provide the text in full, as it is included in the written sources: ELENA TIANINA. INHABITANTS OF THE HOLY RIVER OF NOVGOROD: 123 THE VOLKHOV IN THE HISTORIC, CULTURAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL TRADITION Fig. 1. The River Volkhov at Novgorod. The eldest son of that Prince Sloven – Volkhov – was a demon worshipper and a fierce sorcerer among the people, and worked marvels by the devices of the Devil, and by changing into the form of a ferocious crocodile beast, he blocked the waterway along the River Volkhov. And among those who did not worship him, he devoured some, and drowned others by casting them out (of their ships). Therefore, the people, ignorant at the time, presumed that cursed man to be the true god, and called him Perun (‘Thunder’). So, that cursed sor - cerer built a town in a place called Perynya, where Perun’s idol stood, for night rites and demon assemblies. And the ignorant spoke about Volkhov: he sits as a god. And our true Christian work against that cursed sorcerer and magus – he was killed and strangled by demons in the River Volkhov, and by the devices of demons his body was taken up the Volkhov and thrown onto the bank, across from that wizard-town Perynya. And the ignorant people wept a lot when burying the cursed one with a pagan funeral feast. And a high grave mound was made for him, as is usual among the pagans. Three days after the burial, the earth gave way and devoured the vile body of the crocodile. And the grave mound above him fell straight to the bottom of Hell. And up to the present day, they say that pit remains there and does not fill ( Гиляров, 1878, 15 –17 ). In the text of the source, the story of Volkhov is one of a series of eponymic legends connected with other geographical features in the environs of 124 KULTŪRAS KRUSTPUNKTI 5. laidiens Nov gorod – Lake Ilmen, the Rivers Shelon, Volkhovets and Zhilotug, the trad - ing district of Novgorod called Sloven Hill, as well as the town of Staraya Russa . All of these characters were in some way or other connected with the name of the legendary progenitor of the Ilmen Slovenes – Prince Sloven. But only the eldest son of the ancestor is described as possessing the abilities of a sorcerer and shapeshifter and being worshipped by people as a god. This indicates the spe cial sacred role of this particular natural feature for the medieval people of Novgorod. The written text of the legend about Volkhov bears significant traces of hav - ing been reprocessed by a Christian scribe, aiming to relegate the pagan deity to the level of a sorcerer prince, as well as show him in a negative light. The text is given the character of an edification against paganism: in such texts, similar techniques are often used to destroy a pagan deity. By opposing the worship of Volkhov as a god, the author tries to prove to the ignorant ones that the back - ground of their ancient cults is the worship of a sorcerer killed by the water demons and dragged to Hell. But at the same time he uses the ancient myth about Volkhov known to the Ilmen Slovenes. The image of the shapeshifter prince, the nature of his cult and his connection with the natural landmark Peryn – the major sacred place of the medieval Novgorod people – indicates an archaic tradition reaching back to pre-Christian times. And the denunciatory style of the Christian author testifies to the durability of this tradition and the fact that in the period when the written version of the legend was created not only was the myth intact, but also the worship of Volkhov was widespread in Novgorod. The river was still considered sacred, and sacrifices were offered to it. But even if we do not take into account the later anti-pagan reprocessing of the myth, the deity of Volkhov does not appear to be benevolent to people. The mythological shapeshifter blocks the waterway and mercilessly destroys those who do not worship him. The rituals in his honour are performed at night-time. His chthonic origin is also indicated by the nature of the zoomor - phic image of Volkhov the Sorcerer – a ‘ferocious crocodile beast’. The appear - ance of an animal so exotic for Russia in the legend should without doubt be considered a literary adaptation. The medieval inhabitants of the European North had no idea of crocodiles; rather, the Russian scribe, familiar with the Christian literature of Byzantine or Middle Eastern origin, drew the image from there. Initially a dragon snake, more characteristic for Slavonic mythology, should have been present in the myth ( Иванов , 1980, 468 –470). This is also in - ELENA TIANINA. THE HOLY RIVER OF NOVGOROD INHABITANTS: 125 THE VOLKHOV IN THE HISTORIC, CULTURAL AND MYTHOLOGICAL TRADITION Fig. 2. The fairytale snake on craft items of the medieval period from Novgorod. dicated by the popularity of portraying a fairytale snake in the Novgorod arts and crafts of the medieval period (Fig. 2), which was probably directly connected with the cult of Volkhov, if the personified deity had a snake-like image. The in - dication of shapeshifting of the sorcerer prince Volkhov witnesses that the river deity could have been represented by an anthropomorphic image as well. Representatives of both the high and low mythology of the Slavs connected with the water element were as a rule regarded as chthonic, borderline forces, not always benevolent to humans ( Криничная , 2004, 324 –371). The water ele - ment could, on the one hand, be the source of life and prosperity, and on the other hand, it often took the lives of fishermen, merchants and seamen. The image of the raging waters and the human sacrifice to rein them in is also present in the Novgorod tradition, in the famous folk cycle about Sadko (Новгородские былины , 1978, 148 –151). In connection with Volkhov, the harsh side of the element also came to life. Sailing along this river in the Middle Ages was associated with a number of dangers, connected with the system of rapids on the Volkhov. The most difficult of them – the Ladoga Rapids – were 11 km 126 KULTŪRAS KRUSTPUNKTI 5. laidiens long, while the Pchev Rapids had the form of seven boulder bars. A German diplomat Adam Oleariy, visiting Novgorod in the 1630s–40s, wrote: “There the river dashes like an arrow from large boulders and between them” ( Ильина, Грахов , 1980, 30 –31). Only a very experienced pilot could lead a vessel through the rapids. Normally, merchants used to disembark from their ships and passed the rapids by land, and their ships with the cargo were dragged over the boulders with ropes. In any case, these rapids often caused people’s deaths and wrecked vessels. Probably, it is the rapids which led to the appearance of the notion that the god of Volkhov in the image of a snake blocked the way of ships and drowned those who had not honoured him with a sacrifice prior to the journey. The formidable god could take the traveller as a sacrifice instead. This fully corresponds to the Slavs’ traditional idea about drowned people being a sacrifice to the water spirit. The text of the legend about Volkhov was studied for the first time by B. A. Rybakov, who connected the shapeshifter prince mentioned there with the deity of the River Volkhov, the cult of which, in his opinion, preceded the military and princely cult of the Slavonic god of thunderstorms, Perun ( Рыба - ков , 2001, 239 –244).