d Secur n ity a e S c e a r i e e s P FES João Feijó Social Asymmetries Clues to Understand the Spread of Islamist Jihadism in Cabo Delgado João Feijó Social Asymmetries Clues to Understand the Spread of Islamist Jihadism in Cabo Delgado About the Author João Feijó is a sociologist and PhD in African Studies, having researched identities, social representations, labour relations and migration in Mozambique. He is the coordinator of the technical council of the Observatory of Rural Environment, where he coordinates the research line on “Poverty, inequalities and conflicts”. Cover Art Artwork by Abdula Naguib, named “Monument to Freedom”. Published with the kind permission of the Centro de Documentação e Formação Fotográfica (FCF). Imprint Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung Peace and Security Competence Centre Sub-Saharan Africa Point E, boulevard de l’Est, Villa n°30 P.O. Box 15416 Dakar-Fann, Senegal Tel.: +221 33 859 20 02 Fax: +221 33 864 49 31 Email: [email protected] www.fes-pscc.org ©Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung 2020 Layout: Green Eyez Design SARL, www.greeneyezdesign.com Cover art: Abdula Naguib ISBN : 978-2-490093-18-2 “Commercial use of all media published by the Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung (FES) is not permitted without the written consent of the FES. The views expressed in this publication are not necessarily those of the Friedrich Ebert Foundation.” CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 04 ETHNOLINGUISTIC DIVERSITY AND POWER 06 Main ethnolinguistic groups in Cabo Delgado 06 Reconfiguration of power relations in Cabo Delgado 07 SOCIO-SPATIAL AND ETHNOLINGUISTIC INEQUALITIES 11 Disparities in access to education 11 Disparities in housing conditions 13 Ownership of durable goods 13 Access to former combatant pensions 13 SOCIAL REPRESENTATIONS IN THE NORTH-EAST OF CABO DELGADO 14 Access to business 14 Access to training and employment 15 Access to State support 18 A SOCIAL SUPPORT BASE? 20 CONCLUSION 22 BIBLIOGRAPHY 25 João Feijó | Social Asymmetries – Clues to Understand the Spread of Islamist Jihadism in Cabo Delgado INTRODUCTION Since late 2017, Cabo Delgado province in the He argues that the study shows that there is extreme North of Mozambique has become widespread poverty in Cabo Delgado province, a stage of violent armed conflict. While in across all ethnolinguistic groups, despite the first months the conflict was confined to slightly better housing conditions and access to coastal areas - mostly Islamic and characterised certain consumer goods in urban centers and by a long history of exclusion - the following the Maconde plateau. years saw a greater capacity to penetrate to the interior and South. From 2020, with the The arrival in power of a Maconde President co- attack and occupation of four district offices incided with a greater affirmation of the State and the threat to the provincial capital Pemba, in the control of natural resources (namely the conflict has received more attention from precious stones, but also timber and ivory) in- the international media. terrupting local economic circuits. The situation reinforced speeches of victimisation and denun- In an attempt to explain the conflict, several ciation of the State’s capture process by specific hypotheses have emerged. Focusing on the ethnic groups. This situation has reemerged his- internal aspects of the conflict, poverty and torical resentments of the coastal populations, frustration of social expectations related to the skilfully capitalised on by radical Islamic groups, exploitation of natural resources were consid- who have found there an important social base ered, especially among local youth, consolidat- of support. However, the high social differen- ing an extractivist economy, unrelated to the tiation that exists between Maconde society local economic fabric and little generating itself, the presence of young Macondes among employment. On the other hand, the histori- insurgent groups and the extension of their cal ethnolinguistic conflicts in the region were action to areas of the high plateau obliges us to highlighted, especially between the coastal and express our reservations about the importance inland peoples. Other approaches emphasized of ethnicity in explaining conflicts. the international dimensions of the conflict, namely the relationship with terrorist cells in East Widely disintegrated from the rest of the Africa; or the confluence of various economic national territory, for decades, the extreme interests in the Mozambique Channel, related North of Mozambique registered low levels not only to the control of an energy corridor, of public investment, high rates of poverty but also to illegal drug, timber and ivory routes. and illiteracy. However, as of the new millen- nium, Cabo Delgado has received greater at- In this contribution to the Security Series João tention due to the growing interest in natural Feijó reflects on the internal aspects that are at resources, namely timber and ivory, precious the root of the military tensions in the Northeast stones and, more recently, natural gas. Capital- of Cabo Delgado, related to phenomena of intensive investment does not generate em- poverty and socio-economic asymmetry, but ployment and has few links with the local also to the reconfiguration of power relations economic fabric. The few opportunities for between ethnolinguistic groups. skilled employment are mostly absorbed from 4 João Feijó | Social Asymmetries – Clues to Understand the Spread of Islamist Jihadism in Cabo Delgado outside, so investments have little impact on marked by poverty, inequality and contradic- reducing local poverty, generating inequalities tions between rival ethnic groups. The recon- and land conflicts. figurations of power relations in the province will have led to feelings of (self)exclusion, From the end of 2017, the Northeast of the skilfully capitalised on by local and national province became a stage of violent conflict. A leaders. group of armed insurgents, mainly composed of local youths, with links to Tanzania and This article intends to reflect around the level Kenya, unleashed a series of attacks in areas of of poverty and inequality existing among the the coast with a higher Islamic concentration. In various ethno-linguistic groups of the province, the following years, the conflict became more trying to gauge the extent to which they may violent, spreading to the South and interior of be at the root of the current conflict. In this the province. At the May 2020 Summit of the sense, 94 individuals were interviewed in Southern African Development Community the districts of Palma, Mocímboa da Praia, (SADC) the Mozambican President admitted Macomia, Muidumbe and Montepuez (macuas, the seriousness of the problem by using, for macondes, muânis and mácues), trying to un- the first time, the concept of ‘terrorism’ for the derstand what representations they build on attacks in Cabo Delgado. the different ethno-linguistic groups in the province, in terms of access to business, em- If the thesis of external aggression by radical ployment and income, as well as State support. Islamic groups has gained strength within the Throughout the text, an attempt is made to government, as well as economic groups as- understand the socio-economic factors that sociated with the security industry, other ap- can lead to the adherence (direct or indirect) of proaches have emphasized the socio-economic local populations to violent groups. contradictions that exist in the province, 5 João Feijó | Social Asymmetries – Clues to Understand the Spread of Islamist Jihadism in Cabo Delgado ETHNOLINGUISTIC DIVERSITY Cabo Delgado1.Comprising numerous subgroups, AND POWER the large Macua-Lomué group predominates in Northern Zambezia, Nampula province, Central and Southern Cabo Delgado and Eastern Niassa. It is a heterogeneous group, mostly associated The concept of ethnicity is generally used to define with the Islamic religion in the coastal areas, groups with common linguistic characteristics, but with strong Christian penetration in the sharing the same religious beliefs, shared history, hinterland. The Macua group is traditionally and common customs. However, the concept associated with the matrilineal lineage, although of ethnicity is much more complex for several it has undergone profound changes in recent reasons. Firstly, because of migratory experiences, periods (Osório, 2006; Casimiro, 2008). intercultural contacts and marriages, these cultural characteristics have historically been changing, Secondly, Shimakonde appeared in the 2007 increasing diversity within groups themselves. census as the mother tongue of 20% of the Far from assuming an essentialist dimension, population of Cabo Delgado, concentrated on identities are often complex and contradictory, the Mueda plateau (extending through south- including elements from different cultures. eastern Tanzania), and with a notable presence on the northern coast of Cabo Delgado, and in On the other hand, ethnic identities are strategic centres of military presence such as Montepuez, concepts, self-presented by individuals according Pemba, Nampula or Maputo. This is a mostly to the advantages they hope to obtain, but also Christian group (even though, through mixed politically manipulated according to the disputes marriages, there are Maconde women converted of interests of the different ruling elites. This is to Islam, particularly on the coast), whose main why ethnic identities are, above all, constructed in economic activity is agriculture, complemented opposition to another, generally understood