Nicholas Nyachega 16N3627 RHODES UNIVERSITY Where leaders learn Beyond War, Violence, and Suffering: Everyday Life in the Honde Valley Borderland Communities during Zimbabwe’s Liberation War and the RENAMO Insurgency, c.1960- 2016. Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Masters in African History by full thesis in the Department of History, Rhodes University Supervisor: Prof E. Msindo Co-supervisor: Prof G. Baines January 2017 ABSTRACT This thesis examines the history of the Honde Valley area, in Mutasa District, along the Zimbabwe-Mozambique border. It uses two historic developments: the Zimbabwe liberation war and RENAMO insurgency to explore daily life and mundane experiences of the borderland communities, mainly from the late 1970s to 2016. Because earlier historians of these two historic developments have been much interested in studying the aspects of violence and suffering, this study extends the focus of analysis to the mundane experiences. I argue that in borderland areas, there are other wartime aspects of life worth investigating other than violence and suffering. In doing so, the thesis deploys the notions of conviviality and the everyday to understand the daily experiences of the Honde Valley communities during the disruptions caused to everyday life by these wars. Admittedly, twentieth century wars in Zimbabwe and Mozambique transformed the area that had previously remained at the fringes of colonial power from 1890-1950, into a new and bitterly contested ‘sharp end’ of the war. Nonetheless, peoples’ experiences during these wars cannot be understood merely in relation to violence and suffering. Furthermore, I argue that although some families were forcibly moved into liberation war “Protected Villages ”, they innovatively designed new mechanisms and alternative lifestyles in response to the state’s routinised control. The thesis concludes that beyond the confines of war-induced violence and suffering, Honde Valley communities used their borderland location to evade the pressures of war and continued with life. i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I owe a debt of gratitude to many people who helped me in writing this thesis. First, and most of all, I would like to thank the people of the Honde Valley, who are at the heart of this thesis. Although I cannot mention these individuals whose perspicacity contributed immensely to this work, their voices shaped the arguments I make. My inmost appreciation for the faith and fortitude with which you shared your wartime experiences in Rhodesia and Mozambique. To my parents this thesis is for you. The love and support you gave me indeed exceeded the limits of the rational. I owe the love of learning, to your investment and sacrifice. Zvaisava nyore Sawunyama Mheta nemi Shumba Gwara! I am also indebted to my exceptional supervisors, Prof Enocent Msindo and Prof Gary Baines, whose immeasurable, invaluable support and intellectual contribution I could not have done without. I joined Rhodes University when there was no funding for me to undertake my Master’s degree, but you have always been there to share with me what you had. What a sacrifice! You also constructively criticised and carefully read my work and gave me insights. Furthermore, Prof Msindo’s family welcomed me in their home and his wife assisted me to explore the library at Rhodes University. This thesis also profited from generous comments by many scholars: brothers and colleagues who proved to be a family to me. These scholars made generous sacrifices spent their valuable time reading my work, and providing critical feedbacks that also influenced some of the arguments in my work. These are Dr Joseph Mujere, Dr Tavengwa Gwekwerere, Dr Zoe Groves, Dr Anusa Daimon, Dr Wesley Mwatwara, Dr Tapiwa Madimu, Dr Tichagwa Manamere, Mr. Munyaradzi Nyakudya, Mr. Innocent Dande, Mr. Glen Ncube, Mr. Enock Ndawana, Mr. Mathew Ruguwa, Mr. Lloyd Hazvineyi, Mr. Joseph Jakarasi and Mr. Abraham T. Seda. To Gerald J.T Mandisodza, I say thank you for all your rendered support. Mr. Asa Mudzimu (Chuwe Tawada), it is not surprising that you have a special mention in this thesis. You are a fellow traveller. Your words always inspired me and kept me on track even when things seemed not well. ii My findings at the National Archives of Zimbabwe would have been hardly possible without the assistance of the skilled personnel in the archives. At Turner Memorial Library in Mutare, I would like to extend my thanks to the staff members who helped me discover a great deal of newspaper reports that also contributed immensely to this work. Fr. Brian Enright, thank you so much for allowing me to read war reports from the Jesuit Archives in Harare. At Rhodes University, I would like to thank the members of the History Department, whose critical comments provoked my research zeal. Your reference to key publications contributed immensely to my work. iii DEDICATION For My Parents For the resilience, undying Love and Support you gave me And Nicolette Matipaishe Nyachega iv CONTENTS ABSTRACT...................................................................................................................................i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS......................................................................................................... i. DEDICATION..............................................................................................................................ii. CONTENTS..................................................................................................................................v ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS................................................................................. viii GLOSSARY..................................................................................................................................ix LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS......................................................................................................xi CHAPTER 1................................................................................................................................ 2 INTRODUCTION:.......................................................................................................................2 BORDERLAND AND WAR HISTORIOGRAPHY IN ZIMBABWE.................................... 2 Engaging borderland scholarship............................................................................................... 9 Zimbabwe Liberation War and RENAMO Insurgency: Historiographical reflections.....17 Development of Research............................................................................................................... 22 Research methods, proceedures and techniques............................................................................ 24 Organisation of the thesis........................................................................................................... 28 CHAPTER 2 ................................................................................................................................ 30 HONDE VALLEY BORDERLANDS, HISTORY AND THEIR CULTURAL DYNAMICS ....................................................................................................................................................... 30 v Introduction 30 Honde Valley and Manyika pre-colonial socio-political and economic dynamics............... 31 The making of the Anglo-Portuguese boundary: Borderland politics and contestations, 1888-1912.................................................................................................................................... 36 At the fringes of The State: Honde Valley and the colonial state.......................................... 51 The Honde Valley as Spiritual Landscape............................................................................... 56 CHAPTER 3: BOTHERED BORDERLANDERS: HONDE VALLEY COMMUNITIES AND THE ZIMBABWE LIBERATION WAR....................................................................... 66 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 66 Rhodesians, Churches and Civilians during the Zimbabwe war of Liberation in Honde Valley; 1975-1980........................................................................................................................ 67 Violence in the Honde Valley; 1976-1980.................................................................................. 74 Everyday life behind the fence: Civilians and Protected Villages (PVs) in Honde Valley ... 83 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 99 CHAPTER 4............................................................................................................................... 99 BORDERS AS CONDUITS: HONDE VALLEYCOMMUNITIES AND THE BORDER DURING THE ZIMBABWELIBERATION WAR AND RENAMO INSURGENCIES 1977-1988....................................................................................................................................100 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 100 “When we crossed the border, we lived well.” : Experiences of the Honde Valley families in Mozambique, 1976-1980.......................................................................................................... 101 vi RENAMO war emigres in Honde Valley: 1976-2016